PSYCH 1115 CH 1 - 3

What is Psychology

• The scientific study of the mind and behaviour

• Emphasizes empirical research

• Focusing on normal and abnormal functions

Empirical Research

A scientific approach to answering questions using direct or indirect observation, measurement, and real-world evidence rather than pure theory or opinion

Why is Psychology Important to Study?

• Understand oneself and others

• Predict behaviour

• Control or improve behaviour

• Develop critical thinking skills

Critical Thinking

• Assessing claims based on evidence

• Adopts a scientific attitude which involves:

  • Curiosity

  • Skepticism

  • Humility

  • Open-mindedness

  • Assessing evidence and its sources

  • Considering other explanations

  • Avoiding emotional reasoning

  • Not over simplifying

What are the Steps in Critical Thinking?

1. What are you being asked to believe?

2. What is the given evidence?

3. What are other explanations?

4. What reasonable conclusions should we draw now?

Where was the First Psychology Lab?

Leipzig Germany in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt

• He studied reaction times, perception, attention, and introspection

What is Structuralism

Wundt’s approach to studying structures of consciousness was continued in North America by Edward Titchener

Problem - Introspections not consistent

Functionalism

• Approach by William James

• Looked at why consciousness functions to help survival

  • Problem - lack exact theory or research

Psychoanalysis (or Psychodynamic Theory)

• Sigmund Freud believed patients symptoms were caused by childhood emotional events, and unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses that conflicted with social rules

• Problem - Psychoanalysis was not empirical (e.g. dream analysis, projection)

Humanistic Psychology

• Humans are not slaves to the unconscious or the environment

• Focus on positive qualities

  • Love, growth, creativity, choice, happiness

• Problem - No empirical evidence

Behaviourism

• Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner experimentally observed learning

  • e.g. reward + punishment association

• Problem - Doesn’t study thinking process

Cognitive Revolution

• Focus on the brain as a system that encodes, processes, retains, and retrieves information

• Problem -Mental process are inferred, but not directly observed

What are the 3 main levels of Analysis that explains the mind and behaviour?

1. Biological Influences

2. Psychological Influences

3. Social-cultural Influences

Biological Influences

• Genetic predispositions

• Genetic mutations

• Natural selection of adaptive physiology and behaviours

• genes responding to the environment

Psychological Influences

• Learned fears and other learned expectations

• Emotional responses

• Cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations

Social-Cultural Influences

• Presence of others

• Cultural, societal, and family expectations

• Peer and other group influences

• Compelling models (e.g. Media)

What are Subfields in Psychology?

• Cognitive - thinking, memory, language

• Experimental - design studies

• Biological - genetics, chemicals, brain

• Social - how people interact

• Industrial Organizational - workplace motivation, productivity, selection

• Personality - traits and testing

• Developmental - changes from infancy to adulthood

• Clinical/Counseling - diagnosing, treatment, working on issues

• Community - prevent social problems

• Educational - improving the educational system and teaching

• School - diagnose learning disabilities, testing, help with resources

• Quantitative - statistical methods

• Health - effects of behaviours on health

• Sport - Maximizing athletic performance, motivation, team spirit, and leadership

• Environmental - effects of physical environment on behaviour and mental process

• Forensic - applies psych to law, training police, criminal profiling

What is the Scientific Method?

AN investigative tool that uses systematic observations to generate knowledge

What are the Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Identify a problem

2. Create a testable question and hypothesis

3. Create operational definitions (Describe what is unclear )

4. Design a project; collect data (Chooses to do an experiment, survey, case study, etc)

5. Analyze results and draw conclusions - use statics to see if results confirm or refute the hypothesis

6. Repost (publish) and replicate findings

Naturalistic Observation

• Recording naturally occurring behaviour without interfering with the behaviour

• Disadvantages

  • Reactivity - behaviour changes when people know they’re watched

  • we don’t know the causality of behaviour

Case Study

• Study only one person or animal for a long period of time

• Disadvantages

  • We don’t know the causes of behaviour

  • We cannot generalize (apply) our findings of one person to others

    • External validity is limited

Survey

• Questionnaire given to many people to get private beliefs, behaviours, feelings, opinions

• Disadvantages

  • People can lie

  • Questions may be unclear

  • Surveys don’t tell cause of behaviout

  • Must ensure you have a random sample representative of group population

Psychological Assessment

• Give tests to assess differences in people

• Objective tests - give scores for answers

  • e.g. IQ tests

• Projective tests - imply characteristics based on responses to pictures

• Disadvantages

  • Positive self-presentation

  • Cannot tell the causes of behaviour

  • Limited external validity

Correlational Research

Collect data on pairs of variables then use correlation statistic to assess relationship

Experiment

Researcher changes something in the environment or does something to the participants to see if there is an affect

• Experimental group

  • Depressed people gets a drug and their mood improves

• Control group

  • Depressed people who did not get drugs and their mood did not improve

• Disadvantages

  • External validity is limited

  • Confounding variables - uncontrolled factors can affect results

    • e.g. random variables (age, health, noise, time or test)

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated in participants (e.g. new drug)

Dependent Variable (DV)

Effect measured

Subject Expectancy Effect/Placebo Effect

People expect that a treatment will help so they feel better

• Can prevent this by doing a single-blind experiment

Experimenter Bias

Researcher treats participants differently

• Prevented by doing a double-blind experiment

Quasi-Experiment

Method that looks like an experiment, but is not

• Control not possible because

  • Control would be unethical

  • Natural events can’t be repeated

• Can only get a general idea of the cause

Descriptive Statistics

Numbers are used to describe and present a set. of data

• mean, median, mode, rande, standard deviation, correlations, normal distributions

Inferential Statistics

Math procedures used to draw conclusions and inferences about data

What are the Measures of Central Tendency?

1. Mode - Value that occurs most frequently

2. Median - Halfway point in a set of data; order from lowest to highest

3. Mean - Arithmetic average

*Most sensitive measure of central tendency

Variability

• Spread or dispersion in a set of numbers

• the smaller the variability, the better we can predict

Measures of Variability

1. Range - Highest minus the lowest score

2. Standard Deviation - Average difference between each score and the mean

Correlations

Relationship between 2 variables

Direction or Correlation

• Positive

  • as one variable goes up, the other variable also goes up

• Negative

  • as one variable goes up, the other one goes down

Magnitude of Correlation

Described by a scatterplot or as a correlation coefficient ®

-1.00 ——————-0————————+1.00

Perfect: r= +1.00 or -1.00

Strong: r= +0.60 → +0.99/-0.60 → -0.99

Moderate: r= +0.40 → +0.50/-0.40 → -0.50

Weak: r= +0.10 → +0.30/-0.10 → -0.30

No Correlation: r=0

Normal Distribution

• When researchers collect data, they plot the data into a frequency distribution

• Large amounts of data form a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve

  • the mean, media, and mode are all at the same highest point of the curve

Ethics

• Informed consent

• Deception

• Debriefing

• Respecting freedom to decline

• Confidentiality

What are the Components of the Nervous System

• Neurons

• Glial Cells

• If our brains were cookies, the chocolate chips would be the neurons and the dough would be the glial cells

Neurons

• Sense changes in the environment and communicate signals to other cells to command a response

• Over 100 billion neurons in the NS

Glial Cells

• 10-50x more glial cells than neurons

• Provides structure (glia = glue)

• Delivers nutrients

• Eliminates waste

• Myelin formation

• Form a blood-brain barrier (protects brain from toxic chemicals)

What are the Parts of the Neuron

• Dendrites - receive messages from other cells

• Axon - passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

• Terminal Branches - Form junctions with other cells

• Cell Body - Tell cells life-support center

• Neural Impulse (Action Potential) - Electrical signal travelling down the axon

• Myelin Sheath - covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Functions of Neuron Parts

• Dendrites - Detect signals from other neurons and carry signals to the cell body

• Axon - Sends signals away from cell body to cause release of neurotransmitters

• Terminal Branches - Form junctions with other cells

• Cell Body - Has nucleus and mitochondria; sums excitatory VS inhibitory messages in order for cells to fire

• Receptors - Proteins existing on dendrites and cell body; binds chemicals like ‘lock and key’

• Neural Impulse (Action Potential) - Electrical signal travelling down the axon

• Myelin Sheath - Fatty Substance wrapped around parts of the axon; increases signal speed

• Nodes of Ranvier - Axon’s unmyelinated areas

• Axon Terminals - Axon’s endings; storage of sacs of neurotransmitters

• Synaptic Cleft - Gap between axon terminals of one neuron and receptors of another

Action Potential

• Thoughts, emotions and behaviours involve neurons that communicate by electrical signals

  • Causes release of neurotransmitters

• Brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane

How Does Information Flow Between 2 Neurons

Dendrite (N1)

→ Cell Body

→ Axon

→ Axon Terminals

→ Synaptic Cleft

→ Dendrites (N2)

Neruotransmission

• Action potentials reach axon terminals

• Sacs of neurotransmitters (called vesicles) fuse with the membrane and spill the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

• Neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic cleft, and bind to the next neurons receptors like a key fitting into its unique lock

  • Called “lock-and-key” binding

Actions of Neurotransmitters

• When neurotransmitters bind to receptors, excitatory or inhibitory signals are created in the neuron

• The cell body of the neuron sums up signals

  • If there are more excitatory signals, an action potential is fired

• Any extra unbound neurotransmitters, are removed from the synapse in 2 ways:

  • Reuptake for recycling

  • Metabolism by enzymes in the cleft

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the neuron that release them through reuptake

Key Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine: movement and memory

  • Role in Alzheimer’s

• Endorphins: Involved in pain relief

• Norepinephrine: Fight-or-flight responses, attention, learning, memory, wakefulness

  • Role in depression

• Serotonin: Sleep, appetite, impulse control, mood

• Dopamine: movement, learning, emotion, addiction

  • Role in Parkinson’s, tics, and Schizophrenia

• Glutamate: Excitatory action on neurons

  • e.g. too much = seizures

• GABA: Inhibitory action on neurons

  • e.g. too little = seizures

Drugs - Agonists

• Mimics neurotransmitters

  • Excites

  • Structure is similar to the neurotransmitter molecule that it mimics its effect on the receiving neuron

    • e.g. morphine mimics the action of endorphins by stimulating receptors in brain areas involved in mood and pain sensations

Drugs - Antagonists

• Blocks neurotransmitters

• Inhibits

• Structure is similar to the neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and blocks its action, but not similar enough to stimulate the receptor

  • e.g. Curare poisoning paralyzes its victims by blocking ACh receptors involved in muscle movement

What Lobes are in the Anatomical Area?

• Frontal

• Temporal

• Parietal

• Occipital

What Cortex’s/Areas are in the Functional Areas?

• Association Cortex

• Motor Cortex

• Somatosensory Cortex

• Association Cortex

• Broca’s Area

• Auditory Cortex

• Wernicke’s Area

  • Visual Cortex

What does the Frontal Lobe Control?

Smell, movement, emotion, language, learning, memory, impulse control, planning, thinking, personality

What does the Temporal Lobe Control?

Hearing and language

What does the Parietal Lobe Control?

Somatosensation - collection of body senses like touch, temperature, pain, and body position

What does the Occipital Lobe Control?

Vision

Cerebral Cortex

Wrinkled portion of the brain involved in higher forms of thinking

• Grey matter = cell bodies/dendrites of neurons and glial cells

• White matter = myelin covered axons

How is our Brain Divided

• Divided into 2 hemispheres

• Left processes language (production and comprehension), logic, mathematics, and technical issues

• Right functions in creativity, facial recognition, and perception of emotions

• Contralateral control occurs by each

Left Hemisphere: Language

• Wernicke’s Area and Auditory Cortex

  • Hearing words

• Visual Cortex and Angular Gyrus

  • Seeing words

• Broca’s Area and Motor Cortex

  • Speaking words

What Splits the Brain?

The corpus callosum

What Happens to Split Brain Patients

Objects in the right visual field can be names but object in the left visual field cannot be named

What is this an Example of?

Divided consciousness

Brainstem

• The oldest part of the brain

• Responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

Base of the brainstem that control heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

The brain’s sensory switchboard, on top of the brain stem that directs messages from the body to sensory areas in the cortex

Reticular Formation

Nerve network in the brainstem that play a role in controlling arousal and attention

Cerebellum

The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem that helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance

The Limbic System

Consist of the

1. Hippocampus - Memory

2. Amygdala - Fear + Aggression

3. Hypothalamus - Drives for food and sex

Amygdala

Consists of 2 almond shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger

Hypothalamus

Directs 4 main activities

• Fighting

• Fleeing

• Feeding

• Fornicating

Also controls emotions, temperature, and the pituitary gland

Role in Reward

• When the hypothalamus is activated, a rat will navigate fields or climb up a tree

• Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation (appears to be rewarding behaviour) when electrodes are placed in the hypothalamus

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s surface, measure by electrodes on the scalp

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Scan

Uses magnetic fields to produce computer images showing different areas of brain tissues

Examples of Selective Attention

Consciousness and Inattentional Blindness

What is Consciousness

Awareness of ourselves and our environments that processes only a small part of all that we experience

Inattentional Blindness

Inability to see and object or a person in our mindset

Biological Rhythms

Psychological changes controlled by a brain’s biological clock; synchronized with external cues (time, temperature, light)

Infradian Rhythms

Once a month/season

• e.g. menstrual cycle

Ultradian Ryhtms

More than once a day

• e.g. insulin, brainwaves

Circadian Rhythms

Once every 24 hours

• e.g. sleep-wake cycle

Circadian rhythm is out of order in jet lag and shift work and in the dark the hypothalamus SCN directs melatonin release to promote sleep

Why is Sleep Important?

• We spend 1/3 of our lives sleeping

• 2/3 of North Americans get less than 7-8 hours of sleep

• Chronic loss of sleep can lead to risk of illness and accidents

Why do we Sleep?

• Offers time to eliminate waste products of muscles, repair cells, restore neuron sensitivity, strengthen immune system

  • Sleep deprivation more than 4 days can cause higher risk of infections, death, cortisol increase, damaged neurons, hallucinations/delusions

  • Non-REM sleep is recovered before REM sleep

• Sleep is needed for mental function

  • Creativity, attention, flexibility

  • Synapses develop in REM sleep

• Sleep plays a role in the growth process

  • Pituitary gland releases growth hormones during sleep

  • Older people release less of this hormone and sleep less

Stage 0 of Sleep

Eyes closed; relaxed and awake with slow, large alpha waves

Stage 1 of Sleep (NREM)

Eye roll; edge of consciousness; may recall images; hypnic jerks, and produces smaller, irregular brain waves

Stage 2 of Sleep (NREM)

• Sleep spindles (burst or peaks)

• minor noise doesn’t disturb you

• true boundary of sleep

Stage 3 of Sleep

Slower and larger delta waves

Stage 4 of Sleep

• The deepest stage of sleep

• most delta waves

• where talking and walking happens

• difficult to be awakened

REM Sleep

• Returns to stages 3,2,1 and start REM

• occurs after 70-90 mins from sleep onset

  • Most dreams occur here

  • Paradoxical sleep = HR, BP, breathing, EEG are like that of active person’s but muscles areparalyzed

How Long is Each Cycle?

• Each cycle is 90 minutes and happens 4-6 times a night

• REM stages get longer while stage 4 gets shorter

• Sleep varies with age

Insomnia

Difficulty falling/staying asleep or waking up too early

Sleep Apnea

Breathing stops hundreds of time a night; wakes up gasping for air

Narcolepsy

Irresistible, unpredictable sleep attack that happens during the day and are around 5-30 minutes

Night Terrors

• Horrific dream images in non-REM sleep

• Wakes up afraid with screaming and hallucinations

Sleepwalking

• Misnomer (other behaviours during sleep) that occurs during stage 4

• Blank face and blind sight

Dreams

• Everyone dreams

• Eye movements are not related to dream events

• We dream in real time, colour, 4-5 times a night, and longer towards the morning

• External stimuli can be part of a dream

• 64% of dreams = sadness, anger or anxiety

• 18% of dreams = happiness or excitement

What are Lucid Dreams

Having control of the dream and knowing you are dreaming