midterm cc101

Ea

God of wisdom and water. Warns Utnapishtim about the gods’ plan to destroy humanity with a flood.

Enkidu

Wild man who becomes Gilgamesh’s closest friend. His death causes Gilgamesh to fear death and search for immortality.

Enlil

powerful god who initiates the flood to destroy humanity. Represents divine authority and the gods’ power over humans.

Gilgamesh

King of Uruk, two-thirds divine and one-third human. His friendship with Enkidu and his quest for immortality teach him about mortality and the limits of human power.

Huwawa (Humbaba)

Terrifying guardian of the Cedar Forest, appointed by the gods. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill him to gain fame and glory.

Ishtar

Goddess of love and war. After Gilgamesh rejects her romantic advances, she sends the Bull of Heaven to punish him and Uruk.

Shamash

Sun god who supports Gilgamesh and Enkidu on their journey to the Cedar Forest. Represents divine guidance and protection.

Shamhat

Temple woman who introduces Enkidu to human society through her relationship with him. Her role marks Enkidu’s transition from the wild to civilization.

Siduri

Wise tavern keeper whom Gilgamesh meets during his search for immortality. Advises him to accept human mortality and appreciate ordinary life.

Urshanabi

Boatman who helps Gilgamesh cross the waters to reach Utnapishtim. Helps him continue his quest for immortality.

Uruk

The ancient Mesopotamian city ruled by Gilgamesh. It represents his kingship and the lasting legacy he leaves behind.

Utnapishtim

Survivor of the great flood who was granted immortality by the gods. He tells Gilgamesh about the flood and shows him that immortality is not attainable by ordinary humans.

Sexuality and the temple priestess

• Shamhat, a temple priestess/prostitute, introduces Enkidu to human society through sexual intimacy. Afterward, the animals he once lived among reject him, and he begins his transition from wilderness to civilization.

Civilization vs. Wilderness

• Enkidu begins as a wild man living with animals. Through Shamhat, he learns about human life, food, clothing, and social relationships. 

• Gilgamesh represents civilization

Killing Huwawa

• Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel to the Cedar Forest and kill Huwawa, its divine guardian, to gain fame. Their actions demonstrate courage and ambition, but also disregard for the gods’ established order.

Gilgamesh’s journey

• After Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh searches for Utnapishtim to discover how to live forever. He ultimately fails to gain immortality and must confront the limits of human life.

Gilgamesh as warrior and king

• At the beginning, Gilgamesh is a powerful but oppressive king who abuses his authority. His adventures and friendship with Enkidu help him grow, and the city of Uruk’s walls become a lasting symbol of his achievements as a king.

Bull of Heaven

• After Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar, she asks her father, Anu, to send the Bull of Heaven against Uruk. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat it, but their victory further angers the gods and contributes to the divine decision that Enkidu must die.

Uruk and the nature of the city

• Uruk’s massive walls demonstrate the accomplishments of human society. At the end of the epic, Gilgamesh directs attention to the city’s walls, suggesting that human achievements can endure even when individuals cannot live forever.

The role of the gods/ polytheism

• Shamash helps Gilgamesh and Enkidu, Ishtar seeks revenge after being rejected, and Enlil plays a central role in the flood. The gods can protect humans, punish them, or determine their fate, showing that human power has limits.

The flood

• Utnapishtim explains that the gods decided to destroy humanity with a flood. Ea secretly warns him, allowing him to build a boat and survive. The story resembles other ancient Near Eastern flood traditions and explains how Utnapishtim received immortality.

Grief and Enkidu’s death

• Gilgamesh is devastated by Enkidu’s death and fears that he will suffer the same fate. His grief changes his priorities: instead of seeking fame through heroic adventures, he searches for a way to escape death itself.

The rejection of Ishtar by Gilgamesh

• Ishtar proposes that Gilgamesh become her partner, but he refuses and lists the terrible fates of her previous lovers. Insulted, Ishtar seeks the Bull of Heaven as revenge. This episode illustrates the dangers of offending the gods and Gilgamesh’s arrogance.

Siduri’s advice at the tavern at the edge of the ocean

• Siduri advises Gilgamesh to enjoy everyday pleasures, including food, clothing, and the companionship of loved ones, rather than obsessively pursuing immortality. Her advice contrasts with Gilgamesh’s desperate search to escape death.

Utnapishtim/ immortality/ sleep test

• Gilgamesh reaches Utnapishtim hoping to learn the secret of eternal life. Utnapishtim challenges him to stay awake for six days and seven nights, but Gilgamesh falls asleep almost immediately. His failure demonstrates his human limitations. Although he later obtains a plant that can restore youth, a serpent steals it while he is bathing, and he returns to Uruk without immortality.

Cain

Adam and Eve’s son who kills his brother Abel out of jealousy after God favors Abel’s offering. His story introduces murder, sin, and the consequences of disobeying God.

Abel

Cain’s younger brother, a shepherd whose offering God favors. His murder by Cain illustrates the consequences of jealousy and humanity’s growing violence.

Noah

A righteous man chosen by God to survive the great flood by building an ark. His story emphasizes judgment against human wickedness, obedience, and God’s covenant with humanity after the flood.

Abram / Abraham

The patriarch whom God calls to leave his homeland and promises land, descendants, and a special relationship with God. His name changes from Abram to Abraham, and his story establishes the covenant central to Genesis.

Sarai / Sarah

Abraham’s wife, initially unable to have children. God promises that she will have a son, Isaac, despite her old age. Her story emphasizes God’s promise and the unexpected fulfillment of that promise. Her name changes from Sarai to Sarah.

Sodomites

The inhabitants of Sodom, a city destroyed by God because of its wickedness. Their treatment of Lot’s visitors is a central episode in the story and illustrates divine judgment.

Lot

Abraham’s nephew who settles near Sodom. God’s messengers rescue him from the city’s destruction. His story explores hospitality, moral choices, and the consequences of living among a wicked community.

Lot’s wife

A woman who looks back at Sodom while fleeing, despite the instruction not to look back, and becomes a pillar of salt. Her story illustrates the consequences of disobeying divine instructions.

Lot’s daughters

Lot’s two daughters who, after escaping Sodom, believe their family has no future and get their father drunk so they can become pregnant by him. Their sons become the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites. The episode explores family survival and the origins of neighboring peoples.

Hagar

Sarah’s Egyptian servant, whom Sarah gives to Abraham as a secondary wife or concubine because Sarah cannot conceive. After conflict with Sarah, Hagar flees into the wilderness, where God promises to protect her and her son.

Ishmael

Abraham’s son with Hagar. God promises to make him the father of a great nation, although the covenantal line through which God’s specific promise to Abraham continues is traced through Isaac.

Isaac

Abraham and Sarah’s son, born when they are old. He is the child through whom God’s covenant with Abraham continues. In the binding of Isaac, Abraham is tested when God commands him to offer Isaac as a sacrifice but ultimately stops him.

Rebekah

Isaac’s wife and the mother of Esau and Jacob. She helps Jacob obtain Isaac’s blessing, shaping the family conflict and the continuation of the covenant through Jacob.

Esau

Isaac and Rebekah’s older son and Jacob’s twin brother. He sells his birthright to Jacob for food and later loses his father’s blessing to Jacob. His story explores inheritance, family rivalry, and the reversal of expectations about the older and younger son.

Jacob / Israel

Isaac’s son who obtains Esau’s birthright and blessing, then wrestles with a mysterious divine figure. God renames him Israel, and his twelve sons become the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel.

Rachel

Jacob’s beloved wife and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. Her long struggle with infertility and eventual childbirth contribute to the family story that leads into the story of Joseph.

Leah

Rachel’s older sister and Jacob’s first wife, whom Jacob marries through deception. Although Jacob favors Rachel, Leah bears several of his sons, including Judah and Levi, whose descendants become important in Israelite tradition.

Tower of Babel

humanity builds a city and a tower reaching toward heaven to make a name for itself. God confuses their language, causing people to scatter across the earth. The story explains the diversity of languages and warns against humanity's attempt to achieve greatness independently of God.

Destruction of Sodom

In Genesis 18–19, God considers destroying Sodom because of its wickedness. Abraham argues with God, asking whether the innocent should perish with the guilty. God agrees to spare the city if enough righteous people are found, but the city is ultimately destroyed. Lot and his family are rescued, demonstrating both judgment and mercy.

Binding of Isaac

God commands Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice. Abraham prepares to obey, but an angel stops him before Isaac is killed, and a ram is sacrificed instead. The story emphasizes Abraham's faith and God's provision while also testing the promise that Abraham's descendants will come through Isaac.

The Great Flood

God sends a flood because the earth has become corrupt and violent. Noah builds an ark to preserve his family and the animals. After the flood, God establishes a covenant with Noah, symbolized by the rainbow, promising never again to destroy all life with a flood.

barenness/fertility

Sarah cannot conceive for many years, but God promises Abraham that they will have a son. Isaac is eventually born despite their old age. Similar stories involving Rebekah, Rachel, and Leah show how fertility shapes family relationships and the continuation of God's covenant.

Sibling Rivalry

Conflict between siblings over parental favor, inheritance, status, or God's approval. Genesis repeatedly shows how jealousy and competition affect families across generations.

Moses

An Israelite raised in Pharaoh’s household who becomes the leader of the Israelites. God calls him through the burning bush to confront Pharaoh and lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt. He later receives the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai.

Pharaoh

The ruler of Egypt who enslaves the Israelites and repeatedly refuses to free them despite Moses’s demands and the plagues sent by God. His resistance demonstrates the conflict between human power and divine authority.

Aaron

Moses’s older brother who serves as his spokesperson because Moses struggles with speaking. He helps Moses confront Pharaoh and later becomes the first high priest of the Israelites. However, he also makes the golden calf while Moses is on Mount Sinai, contributing to the Israelites’ act of idolatry.

1. Moses’ Early Life

Definition: Moses’ beginnings show how God can use an unlikely person to accomplish a greater purpose.

Example: Pharaoh orders Hebrew baby boys to be killed, but Moses is placed in a basket on the Nile and raised by Pharaoh’s daughter. After killing an Egyptian who beats a Hebrew slave, Moses flees to Midian. His background connects him to both Egyptian royalty and the oppressed Hebrews.

2. The Burning Bush

Definition: The moment God reveals himself to Moses and calls him to lead the Israelites out of slavery.

Example: God appears to Moses in a bush that burns without being consumed. God identifies himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and commissions Moses to confront Pharaoh.

The Plagues / Hardening of Pharaoh’s Heart

Definition: The plagues demonstrate God's power over Egypt and challenge Pharaoh's authority. The hardening of Pharaoh's heart describes his resistance to releasing the Israelites.

Example: God sends plagues including the Nile turning to blood, darkness, and the death of the firstborn. Pharaoh repeatedly refuses to free the Israelites. The text alternates between Pharaoh hardening his own heart and God hardening it, raising questions about human responsibility and divine control.

Wandering in the Wilderness

Definition: The Israelites' journey through the wilderness after escaping Egypt becomes a period of testing, dependence on God, and preparation for life as God's people.

Example: The Israelites complain about hunger and thirst, and God provides manna, quail, and water. Their struggles reveal their difficulty trusting God despite having witnessed the Exodus.

5. The Ten Commandments

Definition: A set of foundational laws given by God to establish how the Israelites should relate to God and to one another.

6. The Nature of God in Exodus

Definition: God is portrayed as powerful, liberating, just, faithful to promises, and demanding of obedience. God also reveals mercy and patience, while holding wrongdoing accountable.

Example: God hears the Israelites' cries under slavery and delivers them from Egypt. Later, after the Golden Calf incident, God reveals himself as merciful and gracious but also as one who does not simply ignore wrongdoing (Exodus 34:6–7).

7. The Golden Calf

Definition: An act of idolatry in which the Israelites turn away from God's covenant and worship an image instead.

Example: While Moses is on Mount Sinai, the Israelites ask Aaron to make a golden calf and worship it. Moses returns, breaks the tablets, and confronts the people. The episode shows how quickly the Israelites abandon their commitments and creates a crisis in their relationship with God.

8. Justice Delayed / Justice Denied

Definition: A theme concerning the suffering of oppressed people when justice does not come immediately, raising questions about whether and when wrongdoing will be punished.

Example: The Israelites suffer under Egyptian slavery for generations before God intervenes. Exodus begins with their oppression and cries for help, followed by God's action against Egypt through the plagues and the liberation of the Israelites. The story presents delayed justice as a major problem that is eventually answered through divine intervention.

Agamemnon

Greek king who fought at Troy and was murdered by his wife, Klytaimnestra, after returning home. His story serves as a warning to Odysseus about the dangers of returning home and trusting the wrong people.

Klytaimnestra (Clytemnestra)

Agamemnon’s wife, who conspires with her lover to murder him upon his return from Troy. She contrasts with Penelope, who remains faithful to Odysseus.

Orestes

Agamemnon and Klytaimnestra’s son, who avenges his father’s murder by killing his mother and her lover. His story represents loyalty to one’s father and the importance of defending one’s household’s honor.

Demodokos

A blind bard at the Phaeacian court who sings about events from the Trojan War. His songs make Odysseus emotional and eventually help reveal his identity as a veteran of the war.

Menelaos

King of Sparta, Helen’s husband, and brother of Agamemnon. He hosts Telemachus during his search for news of Odysseus and shares stories about the Greek heroes’ returns from Troy.

Helen

Menelaos’s wife, whose departure with Paris helped cause the Trojan War. In The Odyssey, she lives in Sparta and recalls events from the war, connecting Odysseus’s journey home to the larger history of Troy.

Phaeacians

A seafaring people who welcome Odysseus after he leaves Calypso’s island. Their hospitality and assistance allow him to finally return to Ithaca.

Arete

Queen of the Phaeacians and wife of Alcinous. She is respected for her wisdom and influence, and Odysseus must win her favor to receive help returning home.

Nausikaa (Nausicaa)

Princess of the Phaeacians who discovers Odysseus shipwrecked on her island. She provides him with clothing and guidance to reach her parents’ palace, demonstrating hospitality toward strangers.

Akhilleus (Achilles)

The greatest Greek warrior at Troy, who appears to Odysseus in the Underworld. He expresses regret that being dead is worse than living, even as an ordinary person, emphasizing the value of life over heroic glory.

Aias (Ajax

A Greek warrior who appears among the dead in the Underworld. He refuses to speak to Odysseus because he remains angry that Odysseus received Achilles’ armor instead of him, illustrating how pride and rivalry can persist after death.

Aiolos (Aeolus)

Keeper of the winds who gives Odysseus a bag containing the unfavorable winds to help him reach Ithaca. Odysseus’s crew opens the bag out of curiosity and releases the winds, blowing them away from home and delaying their journey.

Teiresias (Tiresias)

A blind prophet whom Odysseus visits in the Underworld. He predicts Odysseus’s future, warns him not to harm the cattle of Helios, and explains what he must do to return home.

Eumaios (Eumaeus)

Odysseus’s loyal swineherd who welcomes him when he returns to Ithaca disguised as a beggar. His loyalty contrasts with the disloyal servants and helps Odysseus prepare to defeat the suitors.

Argos

Odysseus’s old dog, who recognizes him when he returns home disguised as a beggar. Argos dies shortly afterward, symbolizing the passage of time and the loyalty that survives Odysseus’s long absence.

Eurykleia (Eurycleia)

Odysseus’s elderly nurse, who recognizes him by a scar while washing his feet. She helps establish his identity but keeps it secret, allowing him to continue planning his return to power.

Laertes

Odysseus’s elderly father, who lives in the countryside while grieving his son’s long absence. Odysseus eventually reunites with him, restoring his family relationships and helping complete his return home.

The “polytropos” hero

Definition: Polytropos means “many-sided,” “versatile,” or “of many turns.” It describes Odysseus as clever, adaptable, and skilled at using different strategies to survive.

Example: Odysseus calls himself “Nobody” to trick the Cyclops Polyphemus. His intelligence and deception allow him and his men to escape, demonstrating that he relies on more than physical strength.

Kleos

Definition: Glory or fame that survives after death, earned through heroic actions and remembered by others.

Example: Odysseus gains kleos through his adventures in the Trojan War and his encounters with monsters. However, The Odyssey also emphasizes his desire to return to his family rather than pursue glory alone.

Xenia

Definition: The sacred Greek custom of hospitality between hosts and guests. It involves welcoming strangers, offering food and shelter, and treating guests respectfully.

Example: The Phaeacians welcome Odysseus, feed him, and help him return home. In contrast, the suitors abuse Odysseus’s household by consuming his food and refusing to respect his home.

Nostos

Definition: The journey or process of returning home, especially a hero’s return after war. It includes the physical journey and the restoration of one’s place in society and family.

Example: Odysseus’s long journey from Troy to Ithaka is the central nostos of the epic. His return is not complete until he reunites with his family and reclaims his household from the suitors.

Homophrosyne

Definition: Shared understanding, harmony of thought, and compatibility between people, especially spouses.

Example: Penelope and Odysseus both use intelligence and caution. Their reunion depends on their ability to understand one another: Penelope tests Odysseus by asking about their marriage bed, confirming that he truly is her husband.

Reunion scenes

Definition: Scenes in which Odysseus reunites with people from his former life. These moments explore loyalty, identity, recognition, and the emotional cost of his long absence.

Example: His dog Argos recognizes him despite his disguise and dies shortly afterward. Eurycleia recognizes him by his scar, while Penelope initially tests him rather than immediately accepting his identity. Each reunion reveals a different kind of loyalty and recognition.

The contest of the bow

Definition: A test of strength and skill that determines who can string Odysseus’s bow and shoot an arrow through a line of axe heads. It becomes the turning point in Odysseus’s reclaiming of his household.

Example: None of the suitors can string the bow, but Odysseus succeeds while disguised as a beggar. He then reveals his identity and attacks the suitors, demonstrating his superiority and rightful claim to his home.

The wedding bed

Definition: A symbol of the marriage between Odysseus and Penelope, representing fidelity, shared identity, and the stability of their household.

Example: Penelope tests Odysseus by suggesting that their bed be moved. Odysseus explains that the bed was built around a living olive tree and cannot be moved without destroying it. His knowledge proves his identity and demonstrates their unique shared history.

Homeric similes

Definition: Extended comparisons that explain an event or emotion by comparing it to something familiar, often using words such as “like” or “as.”

Example: Homer compares Odysseus’s relief at seeing land after a dangerous sea journey to the joy of children seeing their father recover from illness. Such comparisons help readers understand the intensity of a character’s emotions.

Epithets

Definition: Repeated descriptive phrases attached to characters, gods, or objects. They are a characteristic feature of oral epic poetry and help identify characters while reinforcing their qualities.