Comprehensive Science Review: Biology, Physics, and Chemistry

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering nervous system anatomy, immune responses, pathology, energy calculations, electric circuits, organic chemistry, and atomic structure.

Frontal Lobe

The region of the cerebrum responsible for planning, personality, voluntary movement, and language expression.

Parietal Lobe

The lobe of the cerebrum that processes sensory information including pressure, pain, touch, and temperature.

Temporal Lobe

The lobe of the cerebrum involved in hearing, memory retention, and language comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

The lobe of the cerebrum dedicated to processing visual information.

Reflex

A fast, automatic response that protects the body from danger by traveling directly through the spinal cord.

Ohm's Law

The physical law stating that voltage equals current multiplied by resistance ($V = I \times R$).

Resistance

The opposition to the flow of electric current in a conductor, measured in Ohms ($\Omega$).

Current

The rate of flow of electric charge through a circuit, measured in Amperes ($\text{A}$).

Kinetic Energy

The energy possessed by an object due to its motion, calculated using the formula $KE = \frac{1}{2} \times m \times v^2$.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Energy stored in an object due to its height above the ground, calculated using $GPE = m \times g \times h$, where $g = 9.8\,\text{m/s}^2$.

Energy Efficiency

The percentage of total energy input that is successfully converted to useful output, calculated as $\text{efficiency} = \frac{\text{useful energy output}}{\text{total energy output}} \times 100$.

Ammeter

An instrument designed to measure electrical current in an electric circuit.

Voltmeter

An instrument designed to measure electrical voltage across components in a circuit.

Series Circuit

An electrical circuit where all components are connected sequentially in a single continuous line.

Parallel Circuit

An electrical circuit where components are connected across separate, parallel branches.

Endemic

A disease that is constantly present within a specific geographical area or distinct population.

Epidemic

A sudden outbreak of disease that affects a large number of individuals within a particular community or region.

Pandemic

A disease outbreak that spreads across multiple countries and continents worldwide.

Adaptive Immune System

The third line of defence that targets specific pathogens utilizing specialized white blood cells called B cells and T cells.

B Cells

Specialized white blood cells that recognize specific antigens, differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells, and generate memory cells.

Plasma Cells

Differentiated B cells that produce large quantities of antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

Memory Cells

Cells originating from B cells that remain in the bloodstream to respond faster and fight off previously encountered pathogens if they return.

T Cells

White blood cells produced in the bone marrow and matured in the thymus gland.

Naive T Cell

A mature T cell that has never encountered its specific pathogen antigen but remains ready to be activated.

Regulatory T Cell

A type of T cell that helps control and suppress immune responses to stop the body from attacking its own tissues.

Killer T Cell

A cytotoxic T cell that directly attacks pathogens and destroys infected host cells.

Non-infectious Diseases

Diseases that result from genetic factors, lifestyle choices, or environmental exposures rather than pathogens, such as diabetes, asthma, allergies, and cancer.

First Line of Defence

Innate physical and chemical barriers—including skin, tears, mucus, and stomach acid—that stop pathogens from entering the bloodstream.

Second Line of Defence

An innate immune response involving inflammation (producing redness, heat, swelling, and pain) and phagocytic white blood cells to combat pathogens.

Phagocyte

A white blood cell that patrols the body tissues to engulf and destroy invading pathogens.

Macrophage

A specialized white blood cell that migrates from the bloodstream into tissues and uses enzymes to break down foreign particles.

Fungi

A diverse group of eukaryotic organisms possessing membrane-bound organelles, encompassing single-celled yeasts, moulds, and mushrooms.

Fungal Spore

A resilient reproductive structure produced by fungi capable of surviving harsh conditions in air or soil to germinate and grow.

Parasitic Diseases

Infections caused by eukaryotic parasites that live on or inside a host organism, including Malaria, Giardiasis, and Schistosomiasis.

Virus

A microscopic infectious agent containing genetic material surrounded by a capsid and enzymes, which can only replicate inside the living cells of a host.

Vector

An organism that carries and transmits a pathogen to another living organism without being harmed or infected itself.

Pathogen

A biological agent, such as a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite, capable of causing disease in a host organism.

Bacteria

Unicellular prokaryotic organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles, containing ribosomes, genetic material, and plasmids.

Homeostasis

The biological process that maintains a steady internal environment (regulating blood glucose, blood pressure, pH, and temperature).

Endocrine System

A body system composed of glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the bloodstream to coordinate slow, widespread, and long-lasting responses.

Hormone

A chemical messenger substance released by endocrine glands into the circulatory system to regulate body functions at target tissues.

Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland that secretes hormones regulating and directing the activities of multiple other endocrine glands.

Hypothalamus

A portion of the brain that constantly monitors and checks the body's internal environment to preserve homeostasis.

Target Cell

A cell possessing specific receptor structures that enable it to bind a particular hormone and carry out a specialized response.

Neuron

A specialized nerve cell that generates and conducts electrical nerve impulses throughout the nervous system.

Dendrite

A branched extension projecting from the neuron cell body that receives incoming electrical signals from other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

An insulating fatty layer surrounding the axon of a neuron that accelerates nerve impulse propagation.

Sensory Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits electrical impulses from sensory organs toward the central nervous system.

Chemoreceptor

A sensory receptor that detects chemical changes, such as tasting substances on the tongue or smelling odors in the nose.

Mechanoreceptor

A sensory receptor that responds to physical deformation, sound vibrations on the eardrum, or pressure on the skin.

Thermoreceptor

A sensory receptor that detects changes in thermal energy and registers hot or cold sensations.

Photoreceptor

A specialized sensory receptor in the eyes that detects light stimuli and transmits signals to form visual images.

Brain Stem

The base of the brain where the spinal cord begins, controlling essential involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves branching outward from the brain and spinal cord that links the central nervous system to receptors, muscles, and organs.

Effector

A muscle or gland that carries out a physical or secretory response upon receiving impulses from motor neurons.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary control center of the nervous system, comprised of the brain and spinal cord, which coordinates thoughts and physical responses.

Cerebrum

The largest portion of the brain responsible for conscious thought, voluntary movements, and processing sensory inputs.

Cerebellum

The brain structure situated at the back of the skull that regulates motor coordination, precision, and balance.

Afferent Pathway

A neural route that carries incoming sensory signals from bodily receptors toward the central nervous system.

Efferent Pathway

A neural route that delivers motor commands from the brain and spinal cord outward to muscles, organs, and glands.

Polymer

A large macromolecule composed of repeated smaller structural subunits termed monomers.

Monomer

A small molecular building block, derived from fossil fuels or biomass, capable of bonding together to form polymers.

Biomass

Renewable plant and agricultural waste materials (such as corn converted to ethanol and ethene) used to manufacture sustainable monomers.

Complete Combustion

A combustion reaction occurring in ample oxygen where hydrocarbons yield carbon dioxide ($CO_2$), water vapor ($H_2O$), and energy.

Incomplete Combustion

A combustion reaction occurring in limited oxygen that produces carbon monoxide ($CO$), soot/carbon ($C$), water vapor ($H_2O$), and energy.

Alcohol

An organic compound characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl ($-OH$) functional group replacing a hydrogen atom on an alkane backbone.

Covalent Compound

A chemical substance bound by shared electrons, typically displaying low melting and boiling points and an inability to conduct electricity.

$2n^2$ Rule

The mathematical formula used to determine the maximum electron capacity of an electron shell, where $n$ denotes the shell number.

Alkane

The simplest class of saturated hydrocarbons featuring single carbon-carbon bonds and following the general molecular formula $C_n H_{2n+2}$.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed via electrostatic attraction between a metal cation and a non-metal anion following the transfer of valence electrons.

Covalent Bond

A chemical linkage formed between non-metal atoms through the mutual sharing of valence electrons to achieve a full octet.

Organic Chemistry

The scientific discipline focused on carbon-based compounds that form chains or rings bonded with elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.

Inorganic Chemistry

The branch of chemistry concerned with non-carbon-based materials, including ionic salts and metallic compounds.

Fractional Distillation

A separation method that heats crude oil to evaporate and condense components at different temperatures based on their individual boiling points.

Proton

A subatomic particle residing in the atomic nucleus that has a relative charge of $+1$ and a relative mass of $1$.

Neutron

An uncharged subatomic particle located in the atomic nucleus with a relative charge of $0$ and a relative mass of $1$.

Electron

A subatomic particle located in orbitals around the nucleus that carries a charge of $-1$ and a negligible relative mass of $0$.

Valency

The combining power of an atom, determined by the number of valence electrons it gains, loses, or shares to attain a stable outer shell.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when an atom loses one or more valence electrons.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains one or more valence electrons.