Human Memory Processes, Capacity Limits, Levels of Processing, and Retrieval Practice

Encoding

The process of acquiring and entering new information into the memory system, governed by attention and processing depth.

Storage

The retention and maintenance of encoded information over brief or extended periods across time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness, facilitated by cues.

Miller's Capacity Model

A traditional short-term memory capacity model proposing a limit of $7 \bm{\pm} 2$ items, or approximately 5 to 9 chunks.

Cowan's Capacity Model

A modern short-term memory capacity model proposing a constrained limit of $4 \pm 1$ items, or approximately 3 to 5 chunks.

Chunking

Organizing individual items into meaningful, cohesive groupings (such as acronyms or categories) to reduce cognitive load.

Levels of Processing Framework

A theory by Craik and Lockhart proposing that memory durability depends on the depth of mental analysis during encoding.

Surface / Shallow Processing

Processing that attends only to physical or structural characteristics (e.g., checking for capital letters), resulting in weaker recall.

Mid-Level / Phonemic Processing

Processing that attends to acoustic and sound properties (e.g., evaluating rhymes), producing moderate retention.

Deep / Semantic Processing

Processing that evaluates conceptual meaning and contextual associations, producing the most durable long-term recall.

Rehearsal

Maintaining access to information through intentional verbal repetition or silent mental review.

Visual Imagery

A deep encoding strategy that connects items into an integrated, interactive mental picture.

Retrieval Practice (Testing Effect)

The active retrieval of stored information using cues, which reinforces and consolidates neural memory pathways.