Colossus of North/Burying the Big Stick: Documents #20-61 (HIST 199-EXAM 2)

Lessons of History by Alfred Thayer Mahan (1890)

No. 20

*excerpt from Mahan's 3-volume history, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890)

*published just as US began to appear on world stage as a great power

*justified naval expansion (that would have to accompany the US transition to a world power status) by an appeal to "history"

*Publication also coincided with the Depression of 1890 (which farmers and manufacturers blamed on lack of foreign markets for excess production)

*SIGNIFICANCE: provided ideological basis for US EXPANSIONISM in Latin America by emphasizing the need for a powerful navy, overseas bases, and control of trade routes. in order to secure access to distant markets

*similar to impulses of manifest destiny (but beyond the continental US)

*provided logic for control over transisthmian canal route

*fueled U.S. INTERVENTIONISM, which led to the acquisition of territories like Puerto Rico and the establishment of naval bases, most notably the Panama Canal Zone and Guantanamo Bay in Cuba, solidifying U.S. dominance and influence in the region.

The Baltimore Affair: Message from Pres. Benjamin Harrison to Congress (1892)

No. 21

*message from Pres. Benj. Harrison to Congress; demands apology and reparations from Chile

Background: The Baltimore Affair (1891): diplomatic crisis between U.S. and Chile

*In Oct. 1891, sailors from USS Baltimore went ashore in Valparaíso, Chile.

* brawl broke out between American sailors and Chilean locals, resulting in two U.S. sailors killed and several injured.

*U.S. claimed sailors were attacked unjustly, while Chile argued it was drunken street fight.

Significance for U.S.–Latin American Relations

1. Test of U.S. Power in the Hemisphere

*incident occurred during time when U.S. was asserting Monroe Doctrine and expanding influence in Latin America.

*Pres. Benj. Harrison demanded apology and reparations from Chile—an early example of U.S. diplomatic assertiveness in region.

*crisis demonstrated that U.S. expected deference and respect from Latin Am. nations, foreshadowing later “Big Stick” diplomacy.

2. Strained Relations with Latin Am.

*Latin Am. nations viewed U.S. response as bullying and imperialistic.

*deepened Latin Am. suspicion of U.S. motives; reinforced fears that Washington sought dominance, not partnership.

3. Emergence of U.S. as Regional Power

*showed that U.S. was willing to use military threats to defend citizens and prestige abroad

*marked turning point when U.S. began to act less like a continental power and more like hemispheric enforcer.

4. Precedent for Later Interventions

*set precedent for later interventions in Latin Am., such as in Cuba (1898), Panama (1903) etc.

*revealed emerging pattern of gunboat diplomacy that would characterize U.S.–Latin Am. relations in early 20th century.

Olney Memorandum (1895)

No. 23

*On 20 July 1895, during a dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela over the latter's boundary with British Guiana, Secretary of State Richard Olney (under Pres. Grover Cleveland) told the British (Ambassador Bayard) to submit to arbitration.

*"The United States is practically sovereign on this continent. . . .and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition."

*After brief war scare, British agreed to arbitration process that gave them nine-tenths of the disputed land. Venezuela was not consulted.

*Olney's claim to supremacy in the Western Hemisphere was the broadest interpretation to date of the Monroe Doctrine, which rejected European interference in the Americas.

EFFECTS:

* Establishment of U.S. supremacy: declared U.S. dominance over Western Hemisphere, giving new and assertive interpretation to Monroe Doctrine; clear message that U.S. would not permit European interference anywhere in Americas.

* Expansion of interventionist policy: asserted right to intervene in border disputes; precedent for more aggressive U.S. interventions; led to pattern of using military and economic pressure to enforce U.S. interests and maintain perceived stability.

* Reinforcement of paternalism: reflected view of Latin Am. nations as subordinate to U.S. authority. Venezuela was not consulted during arbitration process that settled its own border dispute with Britain.

* Precedent for later policies: laid groundwork for further expansion of U.S. influence, such as Theodore Roosevelt's 1904 "Roosevelt Corollary." This later policy asserted right of U.S. to act as an "international police power" in cases of "flagrant wrongdoing or impotence" by Latin American nations.

*Resentment and mistrust: fostered anti-American sentiment throughout Latin America; imperialistic rather than supportive.

President William McKinley's speech to Congress: Decision to act against Spain (1898)

No. 25

* April 11, 1898, speech; President McKinley asked Congress for authority for intervention to liberate Cuba from Spain.

-mysterious sinking of USS Maine in Havana

-sensationalist reporting about Spanish atrocities against Cuban insurgents

Key arguments for intervention:

*Humanity: To end the "barbarities, bloodshed, starvation, and horrible miseries" in Cuba.

*American citizens: To protect the lives and property of U.S. citizens in Cuba.

*Business interests: To prevent serious injury to American commerce and trade.

*National security: To remove menace to peace posed by the ongoing conflict and the seizure of American trading vessels.

The request to Congress:

*McKinley requested Congress to authorize him to use the military and naval forces of the United States to secure a "full and final termination of hostilities".

*asked for funding to continue providing humanitarian aid to the starving people of the island.

*He presented the issue to Congress as a solemn responsibility, stating, "I have exhausted every effort to relieve the intolerable condition of affairs which is at our doors".

Outcome:

*Congress passed resolutions on April 19, 1898, demanding Spain's withdrawal from Cuba and authorizing McKinley to use force.

*Spain declares war on US, April 24th

*The United States formally declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898.

Teller Amendment (1898)

No. 26

*amendment by Senator Henry Teller (Colorado) to joint resolution of Congress in 1898, stating that the United States would not annex Cuba after its liberation from Spain.

*did not necessarily commit the US to recognizing a fully independent Cuba, as the phrase "except for the pacification thereof" became a loophole for the Platt Amendment 4 years later

-justified intervention (US is liberator rather than aggressor)

*This amendment reflected America's intention to support Cuban independence while also signaling its growing imperial ambitions

-path to intervene in Cuban affairs

Treaty of Paris (1898)

No.28

*treaty ending Spanish-American War

-US had destroyed Spanish Fleet at Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, ensuring US victory

*US and Spain signed peace treaty on December 10, 1898; Cuban independence forces whose struggle had led to US intervention were NOT even invited

*From the treaty the US got Guam, Puerto Rico and they paid 20 million dollars for the Philippines. Cuba was freed from Spain, but occupied by US military

Significancce

* Opportunity for US EXPANSIONISM

* guarantees US control of an isthmian canal route

Platt Amendment (1901)

No. 30

* despite the Teller amendment appearing to promise full Cuban independence, US govt refused to end military occupation, until certain guarantees limiting Cuban sovereignty were written into its constitution.

-effectively made Cuba a US protectorate

-limited Cuba's treaty-making abilities

-controlled its debt

-stipulated that the United States could intervene militarily to restore order when it saw fit.

-enabled US to have Cuban military base (Guantanamo Bay) in order to "maintain independence of Cuba and to protect the people"

SIGNIFICANCE:

*Expansion of U.S. influence: clear expression of American imperialism and expansionism during the early 20th century. It helped solidify the U.S. as the dominant power in the Caribbean and Central America.

*Legacy of intervention: The amendment set a precedent for future U.S. interventionist policies in Latin America, establishing a pattern of prioritizing U.S. strategic and economic interests over the full sovereignty of regional states.

*repealed in 1934 as part of Good Neighbor Policy

Drago Doctrine (1902)

No. 31

*principle of international law, articulated by Argentine Foreign Minister Luis María Drago in 1902, that states a nation's public debt cannot be collected by military force.

*This doctrine was a response to the European powers' naval blockade of Venezuela to collect debts (Venezuelan Crisis 1902)

*asserted that using military force for debt collection was an unjustified intervention that violated the sovereignty of American nations.

*Despite Drago Doctrine, US responds with Roosevelt Corollary (asserts right of US to use force against other governments in hemisphere)

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)

No. 36

*an extension of the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904

*stated that US had right to intervene in Latin American countries to prevent European powers from doing so, by acting as an "international police power" to correct "flagrant cases of wrongdoing or impotence".

Significance:

*justified U.S. military intervention in countries like Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic to ensure stability and protect American interests.

*Extension of the Monroe Doctrine: While the Monroe Doctrine (1823) warned European nations to stay out of the Americas, the Roosevelt Corollary gave the U.S. a justification to enter those nations to enforce stability.

*"International police power": Roosevelt declared that the U.S. would intervene if a country in the Western Hemisphere was not "keeping order" or was unable to "do justice to outsiders".

Trigger event: The corollary was issued in response to a crisis where European powers were threatening to use force to collect debts from Latin American countries, like Venezuela in the 1902-1903 debt crisis.

Impact: It was used to justify numerous U.S. interventions throughout the first half of the 20th century, leading to the assertion of U.S. dominance in the region and becoming a key part of Roosevelt's "Big Stick" foreign policy.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)

NO. 13

1850 - Treaty between U.S. and Great Britain agreeing that neither country would try to obtain exclusive rights to a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Abrogated by the U.S. in 1881.

SIGNIFICANCE:

-IMPERIALISTIC: Treaty negotiated between US and GB without input from Latin American Nations (ex. Nicaragua); pattern of imperial powers treating the region as a strategic asset, not as partners

-PRECEDENT FOR CANAL DIPLOMACY: set stage for US to control canal policy, culminating in Panama Canal

-INTERVENTIONIST: links US commercial and military interests to regional geography

NOTE: As US ambitions grew, the treaty was seen as a constraint; eventually replaced with Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (which gave US full canal rights)

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)

No. 32

*Agreement between the US and the revolutionary government of Panama granting US the right to build a canal

*Context: Colombia refused to grant 100 year lease of land for canal

*US supported Panamanian independence from Colombia with naval vessels/troops in order to gain right to build canal

SIGNIFICANCE OF TREATY

Set a precedent for intervention: Roosevelt supported Panamanian independence from Colombia to secure the canal rights, marking a clear instance of U.S. intervention in regional affairs for its own strategic benefit.

Established U.S. dominance: The treaty's terms, which gave the U.S. perpetual control of a 10-mile wide "Canal Zone" that bisected Panama, were seen as an assertion of American power and sovereignty over Latin American nations.

Created long-term resentment: The treaty, negotiated with a French citizen rather than the Panamanian government, was widely viewed in Panama as a betrayal and a violation of national dignity;

Led to future conflicts and negotiations: The unresolved issues over sovereignty, as well as the economic and political terms of the treaty, fueled decades of Panamanian protests and led to a series of negotiations and adjustments over the following decades.

Theodore Roosevelt Autobiography (1913): "I took Final Action in 1903"

No. 33

*Theodore Roosevelt's autobiography, specifically in Chapter XIV, "The Monroe Doctrine and the Panama Canal," mentions the 1903 action of recognizing Panama's independence, which was followed by the signing of the treaty to build the canal.

*The phrase "I took final action in 1903" likely refers to his decision to recognize Panama's independence, allowing the United States to secure the rights to build the canal.

SIGNIFICANCE:

*Intervention

*Expansionist

Banana Republics: from O Henry's Cabbages and Kings (1904)

No. 35

Term given to governments supported or created by the United States in Central America; believed to be either corrupt or subservient to U.S. interests.

Characteristics: The definition includes:

*economy dependent on a single export, like bananas

*Political instability and despotic rule, often by a dictator supported by the military

*Exploitation by foreign corporations, particularly for large-scale agricultural operations

*A highly stratified society with a small, wealthy ruling class and a large, impoverished working class.

* O. Henry's definition of a "banana republic" was a fictional country called Anchuria (perhaps Honduras) in his 1904 book Cabbages and Kings, inspired by his experiences in Honduras.

Basis: The stories were inspired by his time in Honduras in the late 1890s, a country heavily influenced by the American-owned United Fruit Company.

Topic: "Order and Progress"---Rise of Anti-Imperialism

Managing Nicaragua: Adolfo Diaz and Philander C. Knox (speeches 1912)

No. 37

Legacy of the Knox-Díaz relationship

The collaboration between US Secretary of State Knox and Adolfo Díaz established a precedent for ongoing U.S. intervention in Nicaragua. The US-backed removal of Zelaya and the subsequent military occupation to support Díaz became a flashpoint for Nicaraguan nationalism. This era of foreign interference and the resulting instability laid the groundwork for the later guerrilla war led by Augusto Sandino, who fought against the U.S. presence from 1927 to 1933.

Dollar Diplomacy Shortly after taking office, Díaz negotiated a loan from U.S. private banks. In exchange, U.S. was given control of Nicaragua's customs receipts to ensure repayment. This deal was a key component of Knox's Dollar Diplomacy, but the U.S. Senate ultimately refused to ratify the treaty.

The 1912 revolt and U.S. military intervention

-Díaz's close alignment with U.S. weakened his support within Nicaragua and led to revolt.

-Díaz's government was unable to quell the uprising and requested U.S. military assistance to protect US property.

-US responded by sending Marines, which crushed rebellion and allowed Díaz to maintain power.

Topic: "Order and Progress"---Rise of Anti-Imperialism

Dollar Diplomacy and Social Darwinism by FM Huntington Wilson (1916)

No. 42

F.M. Huntington Wilson (assistant Secretary of State to Taft) equates Dollar Diplomacy to "common sense" diplomacy:

* national advantage of foreign investment is

(1) political advantage

(2) economic advantage

* "substitute dollars for bullets"--> stability

-"create material prosperity to wean the Central

Americans from their preoccupation with revolution"

* FM Huntington Wilson justifies Monroe Doctrine and US economic intervention in Americas.

* Social Darwinism: the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals; used to justify imperialism

-International Biology: "neighboring countries comprise an environment; the strongest will dominate that environment"

SIGNIFICANCE:

*Intervention, but change in type: ECONOMIC

Topic: "Order and Progress"---Rise of Anti-Imperialism

The Character of the United States: "The Truth about the United States" by Jose Marti (1894-1895)

No. 22

Jose Marti: Cuban born journalist and leader of movement against Spanish rule; first revolution attempt unsuccessful; died in second attempt

*José Martí viewed the United States with a mixture of admiration and concern, recognizing its democratic ideals and cultural contributions while also fearing its potential for imperialistic expansion, excessive individualism, glorification of wealth, and racism (treatment of Indians and former slaves).

He urged Latin Americans to learn from the U.S. but to avoid blindly imitating its model, instead calling for them to forge their own path by developing their unique "American" identity rooted in their own history and needs.

EARLY VOICE OF ANTI-IMPERIALISM

Ariel by Jose Enrique Rodo (1900)

No. 29

-Uruguayan writer Jose Enrique Rodo wrote Ariel, book titled after a character in Shakespeare's play The Tempest

-compared values of US with those of Latin America

-Core Allegory

-Ariel: symbol of idealism, beauty, intellectual virtue-->Latin America

-Calibean: symbol of materialism, vulgarity, utilitarianism---->USA

Main Message:

-Latin America should resist US cultural dominance

-embrace Hispanic traditions

-prioritize moral and intellectual development over economic gain

EARLY VOICE OF ANTI-IMPERIALISM

CULTURAL NATIONALISM

"To Roosevelt" by Ruben Dario (1904)

No. 34

-Ruben Dario, native Nicaraguan writer, journalist

-wrote "To Roosevelt" in response to US expansionism and Roosevelt's interventionist policies

-critiqued US as materialistic, lacking spirituality, and depth; aggressive and imperialist

-defended Latin America as rich in indigenous heritage. Catholic tradition, and poetic soul; spiritually superior, but militarily weaker

-Dario is founder and principal figure of Modernismo (modernism) in Latin American Literature

-looked to France for literary inspiration

Key Characteristics of Modernismo

-Aestheticism: focus on beauty, using rich imagery, lyrical vocabulary, and exotic settings to escape from the materialism of everyday life.

-Innovation: Experimentation with literary forms, such as free verse, and a deep interest in language, literary technique, and form.

-Symbolism: A heavy use of symbols, with the swan being a prominent symbol of beauty and perfection.

-Cultural cosmopolitanism: An open-minded, global perspective that was a reaction to the rapid modernization and urbanization occurring in Latin America.

EARLY VOICE OF ANTI-IMPERIALISM

CULTURAL NATIONALISM

Pact of the Embassy (1913)

No. 38

-secret agreement brokered by US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson in Mexico City during political crisis during presidency of Francisco Madera (Feb. 1913--Taft Presidency)

-growing unrest/violence

-Henry Lane Wilson facilitated pact between General Huerta and Felix Diaz that led to the overthrow and assassination of President Madero

SIGNIFICANCE:

-reflects broader pattern of interference in Latin American politics, under the guise of "stabilizing governance"

-Contradictory: US claims to support democracy while enabling authoritarian power grabs

-damages US-Mexico relations and became SYMBOL OF IMPERIAL MANIPULATION

TOPIC: MEXICAN REVOLUTION

The Mobile Speech by Woodrow Wilson (1913)

No. 39

-Woodrow Wilson's 1913 speech delivered in Mobile, AL

-outlined a NEW VISION for US Relations with Latin America

-emphasized respect for sovereignty, non-intervention, and moral diplomacy; would no longer exploit southern neighbors for economic gain

-called for a partnership based on justice and mutual respect: IDEALISM ("belief in democracy, in the spiritual unity of the Americas, and in the emancipatory potential of US investment capital")

SIGNIFICANCE:

-Rhetorical shift from coercive power (Roosevelt Corollary and Dollar Diplomacy) to a benevolent leader

-Despite idealism, Wilson's later actions included intervention policies (ex. refusal to recognize Huerta regime and the occupation of Veracruz)

TOPIC: MEXICAN REVOLUTION

The State Department and Public Opinion by Robert Lansing (1916)

No. 41

-letter written by Secy of State Robert Lansing to President Wilson regarding the challenges of shaping and responding to public opinion in the context of US foreign policy regarding Mexico

-Lansing strongly advocates for not using the word intervention for many reasons:

1. Intervention conveys "interference"

2. resentment by Mexico if defeated in war

3. intervention is distasteful to Latin Am.;

bad effect on Pan-American Program

4. suggests an effort to "clean up" the country

5. intervention implies war would be made in the

interest of Mexican people; when in fact, war was

forced on us by Mexican govt.

Democrat Party Platform (two weeks before this letter):

*intervention implies military subjugation which is revolting to people of USA

*US military occupation of N. Mexico is necessary response to lack of "law and order" there

CONTEXT

* Mexican Revolutionary Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico on March 1916 in an attempt to revive his status against rival revolutionary leader Carranza

*US Congress had passed a resolution endorsing armed intervention to protect citizens (and capture Villa)

*Pres. Wilson (democrat) opposed intervention; reluctant to commit troops; but under pressure of reelection sent expeditionary force of 6,000 troops against Villa within week of attack

*Republicans (led by Senator Fall of New Mexico) wanted full-scale invasion of Mexico

*US expeditionary forces fail in mission; withdraw from Mexico on Feb. 5, 1917

SIGNIFICANCE

*reflects role of public opinion in shaping foreign policy

*undermines trust in US democratic rhetoric; democracy when convenient

*Moral Diplomacy tension: reveals contradictions between Wilson idealism and reality of politics

*deepened Anti-Imperialism sentiment in Latin Am.

TOPIC: MEXICAN REVOLUTION

Zimmerman Telegram (1917)

No. 43

A telegram Germany Sent to Mexico to convince Mexico to join alliance against U.S.

*telegram sent in January 1917 by German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmerman to the German Ambassador in Mexico

*proposed a secret alliance between Germany and Mexico in event that US entered WWI against Germany

*in exchange for support, Germany promised to help Mexico recover lost territories in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona

*British intercepted the telegram and gave to Pres. Wilson and Scy of State Robert Lansing; caused a diplomatic uproar in the US and helped galvanize support for US entering WW1

SIGNIFICANCE

* contributed to US entry in WW1

*reinforces MONROE DOCTRINE LOGIC

*Justified increased US INTERVENTION in Latin Am region

*IMPERIAL GEO-POLITICS: Latin America is a strategic pawn in global conflict

TOPIC: MEXICAN REVOLUTION

Mexican Constitution of 1917

*new constitution adopted by victorious Mexican rebels in 1917

*Article 27: Promised land reform, limited foreign ownership of key resources

-gave govt. right to expropriate (take) privately owned

land for the public interest (if given compensation)

-subsurface minerals are the property of the NATION

*guaranteed the rights of workers

*placed restrictions on church

*marked formal end of Mexican Revolution.

SIGNIFICANCE:

-intended to restore control of Mexican economy to the Mexican govt.

-Article 27 became obstacle to full diplomatic recognition by US; US govt. wanted to shield US land owners and investors from possible retroactive confiscation of their properties

-prompts discussion of rights of US property owners and leaseholders (including oil companies) at conference: Bucareli Accords

TOPIC: MEXICAN REVOLUTION

The Bucareli Accords by Governments of Mexico and US (1923)

No. 46

-August 1923 meeting on Bucareli Street in Mexico City of representatives from US govt and Mexican govt. to discuss rights of US property owners in light of new Mexican Constitution (1917)

-Mexico: President Alvaro Obregon

-US: President Calvin Coolidge

-produced 2 draft treaties covering claims by property owners dating from 1868

CONTROVERSIAL RESULT:

Gentleman's Agreement or Extra-Official Pact:

-not official result, but informal agreements on status of US oil claims

-both parties agreed to recognize certain pre-revolutionary oil concessions if leaseholders or owners had taken "positive acts" to recover oil

-"preferential rights" would be recognized in the absence of positive acts

SIGNIFICANCE

-US resumes full diplomatic relations with Mexico on August 31

-IMPERIAL PRAGMATISM: stabilized relationship with US and reassured US investors

-ECONOMIC/POLITICAL NATIONALISM: sparked domestic backlash in Mexico; nationalists viewed agreement as betrayal of revolutionary principles

TOPIC: MEXICAN REVOLUTION

Just Compensation for the Good Neighbor by US Secy of State Cordell Hall (1938)

No. 55

* in a July 1938 letter to Mexican Ambassador Castillo Najero, Secy of State Cordell Hall articulates a key principle of the Good Neighbor Policy: the protection of foreign property rights through fair compensation

CONTEXT:

* in response to a labor dispute between petroleum producers and unions for oilfield employees, the Mexican government nationalized foreign-owned oil properties on March 18, 1938

OUTCOME:

* US and Mexico agreed to joint commission to decide value of property expropriated by Mexico (1941)

* Commission recommended $29 million compensation for oil companies

* Roosevelt administration decided to no longer support companies in their dispute with Mexico

* Oil companies accepted $30 million dollars in compensation in 1943

SIGNIFICANCE:

Anti-Imperialism:

Hull rejects military intervention and affirms national sovereignty, distancing the US from earlier imperial practices

Economic Nationalism:

Mexico's oil nationalism reflects a clear assertion of control over domestic resources and rejection of foreign dominance

Political Nationalism:

Mexico's actions assert its right to govern and legislate independently, even in the face of foreign pressure

TOPIC: RISE OF NATIONALISM

Burying the Big Stick

Populist Diplomacy in Mexico by Josephus Daniels (1938)

No. 56

* In his memoirs, Josephus Daniels, Ambassador to Mexico from 1933-1941 under FDR, described popular response to President Cardenas's nationalization of foreign-owned oil companies as well as his own reaction to Cardenas's decision

* praises Cardenas for this commitment to social justice and land reform, acknowledging these actions as of the Mexican people's will: POPULISM

* "with expropriation of foreign oil properties, a wave

of delirious enthusiasm swept over Mexico"

* Catholics (who had been critical of Cardenas) raised

funds during mass for compensation

* Women who generally had a "place in the home"

marched to palace and donated jewelry for

compensation

SIGNIFICANCE

* marked shift in US foreign policy with Mexico (Latin America)

*Daniels takes a conciliatory tone: emphasizes mutual respect, cultural understanding, and importance of diplomacy rather than use of force

* recognizes Latin American nationalism and populism as legitimate forces

Note: Daniels was also Secy of Navy under Pres. Wilson and ordered occupation of Veracruz in a futile attempt to control the Mexican Revolution

TOPIC: RISE OF NATIONALISM

Burying the Big Stick

A Skeptic Views the Good Neighbor Policy by Carleton Beals

No. 57

* journalist and Latin American expert, Carleton Beals, offers a critique of the US shift to diplomatic engagement under FDR

* Beals argues that the Good Neighbor Policy (while rhetorically committed to non-intervention and mutual respect) masks continued US economic dominance and political manipulation in Latin America

*points to continued US corporate control of resource-rich sectors

* questions whether true sovereignty and social justice are achievable under such conditions

* challenges the sincerity of US diplomacy; calls attention to gap between policy language and reality in Latin America

SIGNIFICANCE

Anti-Imperialism:

* critiques US economic and political influence as form of informal empire

Economic Nationalism

* supports Latin American efforts to reclaim control over natural resources and resist foreign corporate exploitation

TOPIC: RISE OF NATIONALISM

Burying the Big Stick

A Latin American Doctrine of Anti-Imperialism by Victor Haya de la Torre (1926)

No. 47

* Peruvian intellectual, Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, declares Latin American Doctrine of Anti-Imperialism

* in his manifesto for APRA (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana) denounces US imperialism and calls for a unified regional response rooted in social justice, economic independence, and political sovereignty

* critiques foreign domination, especially through economic exploitation and military intervention

* urges Latin American nations to embrace anti-imperialist solidarity

SIGNIFICANCE

* document lays the ideological foundation for Latin American populist and nationalist movements, blending Marxist analysis with regional identity

* landmark in development of Latin American resistance to US hegemony (leadership or dominance, especially by one country over others)

TOPIC: NEW VOICES OF ANTI-IMPERIALISM

With Sandino in Nicaragua by Carleton Beals (1928)

No. 49

* journalist and Latin American expert, Carleton Beals, offers a first-hand account of his time with Augusto Cesar Sandino, Nicaraguan revolutionary leader who led guerilla resistance against US military occupation

* Sandino was characterized as "bandit" by US govt.

* Beals portrays Sandino as principled nationalist and populist hero, committed to defending Nicaraguan sovereignty and dignity

* Beals captures ideological fervor of Sandino's movement, rooted in anti-imperialism, political nationalism, and popular mobilization: POPULISM

SIGNIFICANCE

ANTI-IMPERIALISM

* challenges US interventionist narratives

POPULISM

* elevates Sandino as symbol of Latin American resistance

* shaped international perceptions of Nicaraguan struggle

TOPIC: NEW VOICES OF ANTI-IMPERIALISM

Good Neighbor Policy: FDR's Inaugural Address (1933)

No. 51

* Since the days of Teddy Roosevelt's Roosevelt Corollary, the US had intervened many times in Latin America militarily and economically to benefit US businesses, enraging many Latin Americans.

* FDR's "Good Neighbor Policy promised to end these interventions and respect the sovereignty of its southern neighbors and pursue peaceful, diplomatic cooperation

SIGNIFICANCE

* pivotal shift in US-Latin American relations

*rejected the INTERVENTIONIST practices of previous administrations for DIPLOMACY

* ended occupations in Nicaragua and Haiti

* led to repeal of Platt Amendment in Cuba (1934)

*set tone for more respectful negotiations,

including Mexico's oil expropriation (1938)

TOPIC: GOOD NEIGHBORS

Burying the Big Stick

Mission to Havana by Sumner Welles (1933)

No. 52

*Sumner Welles, FDR ambassador to Cuba, in his memoir retells first test of Good Neighbor Policy in Cuba

CONTEXT

* open warfare erupted in Cuba against dictatorial govt of Gerardo Machado

* opponents of Machado seemed to be leading country towards social revolution

* FDR sends Sumner Welles, as ambassador to Cuba, with orders to resolve the crisis through mediation

* Machado resists Welles's efforts to convince him to resign until Cuban army turned against him in August and forced him to leave

* in September, Welles's choice for president Cespedes was overthrown by left-leaning professor Ramon Grau San Martin (with support of General Batista)

*January 1934, Batista switched support from Grau San Martin to Mendieta

SIGNIFICANCE

* Cuba is first serious test of FDR's Good Neighbor Policy

* tested sincerity of Good Neighbor Policy

* shows contradictions in US foreign policy: intervention vs. Good neighbor

TOPIC: GOOD NEIGHBORS

Burying the Big Stick

The United States Accepts the Non-Intervention Principle by 7th International Conference of American States (1933)

No. 53

* at 7th International Conference of American States (in Montevideo, Uruguay) the US formally endorsed the principle of non-intervention in Latin American affairs

*declaration supported by Secy of State Cordell Hull with one RESERVATION: left the door open to intervention under certain circumstances as dictated by "the law of nations as generally recognized and accepted"

SIGNIFICANCE

* Significant diplomatic shift, aligning US policy with Latin Am. demands for sovereignty and respect

TOPIC: GOOD NEIGHBORS

Burying the Big Stick

Hemispheric Security and Non-Intervention by Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace (1936)

*FDR proposed special conference (in Buenos Ares) to consider measures to prevent war among the countries of the Western Hemisphere while heading off any threat that might emanate from outside the hemisphere

*US was maintaining official policy of neutrality in respect to German, Italian aggression and hoped to win Latin Am support for that policy

SIGNIFICANCE

* first time since the Pan-American conferences had begun in 1889 that the delegates were asked to take steps against a possible attack from a non-hemispheric aggressor

* also adopted an additional protocol of non-intervention without attaching RESERVATIONS

TOPIC: GOOD NEIGHBORS

Burying the Big Stick

Bracero Program by US & Mexican Governments (1942)

No. 61

* agreement established through negotiation between US & Mexican governments to address unskilled labor shortages in the US during WW2

* Bracero "laborer" program allowed Mexican workers and their families would be admitted to work temporarily in the US, mainly on farms and railroads

* purpose was to free US workers for military service

RESULT

* employment of tens of thousands Mexicans in US

* discriminatory treatment and acts of violence against Mexicans during the war led Mexican govt. to prohibit braceros from working in Texas from 1943-1947

* after the war, the program was extended until 1964

SIGNIFICANCE

* deepened economic interdependence between US/Mexico

* sparked long-term debates over labor rights, immigration, and border control

* influenced future guest worker programs and immigration policy

* CONTRADICTION: symbol of opportunity AND exploitation in transnational labor history; some IMPERIALISTIC TENDENCIES

TOPIC: GOOD NEIGHBORS

Burying the Big Stick