AP Psych Midterm Sem 1

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founded the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Structuralism

Early approach that analyzed conscious experience into basic components.

Introspection

Self-observation and reporting of conscious experience.

Functionalism

Study of how thoughts and behaviors help people adapt.

William James

Major advocate of functionalism; wrote Principles of Psychology.

Behaviorism

Approach emphasizing observable behavior and learning.

John B. Watson

Promoted behaviorism and studied conditioned emotional responses.

B. F. Skinner

Studied operant conditioning and consequences of behavior.

Psychoanalytic approach

Emphasizes unconscious motives and early experiences.

Sigmund Freud

Developed psychoanalysis and emphasized unconscious conflict.

Humanistic psychology

Approach stressing free will, personal growth, and potential.

Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychologist associated with unconditional positive regard.

Abraham Maslow

Proposed a hierarchy of needs and self-actualization.

Cognitive psychology

Studies thinking, memory, language, and problem-solving.

Biological perspective

Explains behavior through the brain, genes, and hormones.

Evolutionary perspective

Explains behavior using adaptation and natural selection.

Sociocultural perspective

Studies how social and cultural contexts shape behavior.

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.

Nature

Genetic and biological influences on behavior.

Nurture

Environmental and experiential influences on behavior.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about a relationship between variables.

Operational definition

Specific description of how a variable is measured or manipulated.

Independent variable

Factor a researcher manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent variable

Outcome measured in an experiment.

Confounding variable

Uncontrolled factor that may influence the outcome.

Random assignment

Placing participants into conditions by chance to reduce group differences.

Random sample

Selecting participants by chance to improve representativeness.

Control group

Comparison group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Experimental group

Group exposed to the independent variable or treatment.

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor interacting researchers know treatment assignments.

Placebo effect

Change resulting from expectations rather than an active treatment.

Correlation coefficient

Number from -1 to +1 showing direction and strength of association.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables.

Causation

A change in one variable produces a change in another.

Naturalistic observation

Recording behavior in real-world settings without intervention.

Case study

Detailed examination of one person or a small group.

Survey

Collecting self-reported information using questions.

Mean

Arithmetic average; sensitive to extreme values.

Median

Middle value in an ordered set of scores.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score.

Standard deviation

Measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

Informed consent

Participants receive relevant study information and voluntarily agree.

Debriefing

Explaining a study's purpose and procedures afterward.

Neuron

Specialized cell that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

Dendrites

Branching neuron structures that receive incoming signals.

Soma

Neuron cell body containing the nucleus.

Axon

Long projection carrying impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

Insulation around some axons that speeds neural impulses.

Axon terminals

End structures that release neurotransmitters.

Synapse

Junction where one neuron communicates with another cell.

Action potential

Brief all-or-none electrical impulse traveling along an axon.

Resting potential

Electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane at rest.

Threshold

Level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

Refractory period

Brief recovery interval when firing again is limited.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitter by the sending neuron.

Agonist

Substance that increases or imitates a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonist

Substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's action.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and memory.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement, motivation, and reward.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary skeletal muscle activity and carries sensory signals.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary functions such as heartbeat and digestion.

Sympathetic nervous system

Mobilizes the body for fight-or-flight responses.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Supports rest-and-digest activities.

Reflex arc

Fast neural pathway producing an automatic response, often through the spinal cord.

Endocrine system

Glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Pituitary gland

Endocrine gland that influences growth and other glands.

Hypothalamus

Regulates homeostasis and controls pituitary hormone release.

Medulla

Brainstem area regulating heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

Brainstem structure involved in sleep and movement coordination.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, precise movement, and motor learning.

Thalamus

Major relay center for sensory information except smell.

Amygdala

Involved in emotion processing, especially threat and fear.

Hippocampus

Important for forming new explicit memories.

Frontal lobe

Supports planning, judgment, voluntary movement, and speech production.

Parietal lobe

Processes touch and spatial information.

Temporal lobe

Processes hearing and aspects of language and memory.

Occipital lobe

Primary cortical region for visual processing.

Motor cortex

Frontal-lobe area controlling voluntary movement.

Somatosensory cortex

Parietal-lobe area processing bodily touch and position.

Broca's area

Typically left frontal area important for producing speech.

Wernicke's area

Typically left temporal region important for language comprehension.

Corpus callosum

Large nerve-fiber bundle connecting the cerebral hemispheres.

Neuroplasticity

Brain's ability to change organization and connections with experience.

EEG

Records electrical activity of the brain via scalp electrodes.

MRI

Produces detailed structural images using magnetic fields.

fMRI

Estimates brain activity through changes in blood oxygenation.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the surrounding environment.

Circadian rhythm

Approximately 24-hour biological cycle governing sleep and other functions.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Hypothalamic clock that coordinates circadian rhythms.

Melatonin

Hormone associated with signaling biological nighttime.

NREM stage N1

Light transition from wakefulness to sleep; may include hypnic jerks.

NREM stage N2

Sleep stage characterized by spindles and K-complexes.