Chapter 6 Memory

key terms

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

encoding

the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

organizational encoding

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

mnemonics

encoding strategies that improve subsequent retrieval

sensory memory

a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

iconic memory

fast decaying store of visual information

echoic memory

fast decaying store of auditory information

short term memory

a type of storage that holds non sensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it

serial position effect

observation that the first few items and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle

primacy effect

enhanced recall of the first few items in a series

recency effect

enhanced recall of the last few items in a series

chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger cluster or chucks that are more easily held in short term memory

working memory

active maintenance of information in short term storage

visuo-spatial sketchpad

subsystem of working memory that stores and manipulates visual images

phonological loop

subsystem of working memory that stores and manipulates verbal information

episodic buffer

integrates visual and verbal information from the working memory subsystems

central executive

coordinates the episodic buffer and subsystems

long term memory

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer to new information from the short term store into the long terms store

retrograde amnesia

the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

reconsolidation

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again

long term potentiation (LTP)

a process whereby repeated communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

engram

the enduring physical change in the brain that is produced by a particular experience - forms the underlying basis of a memory, but the process of retrieval is necessary for it to manifest as a memory

retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

encoding specificity principle

a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which information was initially encoded

state dependent retrieval

the process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

transfer appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

retrieval induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

explicit memory

occurs when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences

implicit memory

occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

procedural memory

implicit memory—the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things

priming

implicit memory—an enhanced ability to thing of a stimulus, such as a word or object as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task

semantic memory

explicit memory—a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

explicit memory— the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

divergent creative thinking

generating creative ideas by combining different types of information in new ways

retrieval induced forgetting

talking about some aspects of a memory, yet omitting other related events induces

collaborative memory

how people remember in groups

collaborative inhibition

collaborative groups typically recall fewer items when they remember together

transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

retroactive interference

situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

proactive interference

situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

childhood/infantile amnesia

most of us have few or no memories from the first few years of life

absentmindedness

a lapse in attention that results in memory failure

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

blocking

a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it

memory misattribution

assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source

source memory

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

false recognition

mistaken feeling of familiarity

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

bias

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

persistence

the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget

flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

amygdala

small almond shaped structure in the brain that influences hormonal systems—activated during emotional events and enhance memory for the experience