What were the reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases and how did these change in the years 1763-1914?

When and how did Britain acquire Gibraltar?

- vital to France and Britain's conflict
- 1704 captured Gibraltar from Spanish, 1708 captured Minorca and another port
- France and Spain used American War of Independence to try seize British assets
→ 1778 British rebuilding but vulnerable, French joined Americas to seize British territories in West Indies - French fleets of Toulon and Brest and American privateers = match - BRITISH MISTAKE IN NOT SHUTTING STRAITS OF GILBRALTAR = UNDERMINED POSITION
→ 1779 Spain joins France - 121 ships v 90, Dutch joined = 137 v 94
- Franco-Spanish army laid siege Gibraltar 1779 (Minorca 1781)
→ Naval priority = Gibraltar - broke blockade and resupply 5,000 strong garrison - 182 defeated attempt to seize the fortress (500 soldiers on batteries, 18 warships) - kept until 1783

Why was Gibraltar of value to Britain?

- deep harbour and well positioned to attack French shipping and blockade main French port of Toulon - can monitor France’s shipping 

- tied down French and Spanish ships and troops that could have been concentrated on Britain
- as Navy recovered strength 1790s = became important staging post for British Mediterranean fleets (re-supplied Nelson's fleet at Trafalgar 1805)

When and how did Britain acquire Ceylon?

- 1794 Dutch royal family forced to flee Netherlands to England after French invasion
→ forced to give up control of colonies to British
- British sent HMS Suffolk to secure Ceylon but French sent forces (puppy government in Holland)
- power of HMS Suffolk and British East India Company troops = too much for the governor = surrendered and commercial running handed over - immediately gained £300k

Why was Ceylon of value to Britain?

- financially self sufficient = vital to British trade
- the one key colony not traded in the treaty of Amiens (1802) - the Kingdom of Kandy hoping British would allow them access to sea = wrong but Britain couldn't afford to use resources so made peace
-> worked until Governor Browning sponsored coup against King of Kandy forcing it to become a self governing colony that had to pay tribute to Ceylon - 1817-18 rebellion = crushed

When and how did Britain acquire Cape Town?

- 1781 attempted but failed, yet Dutch forced to give it up in return for sanctuary - in 1795 under command of Sir George Elphinstone took control of the colony until peace of Amiens when it was returned to Dutch
- 1806 seized again when war with France broke out 
- control formalized in a treaty with Dutch 1814

Why was Cape Town of value to Britain?

- little economic significance other than as a stop between India and Europe
- military importance = base to interfere with shipping going between Indian and Atlantic oceans

When and how did Britain acquire Malta?

- captured by Napoleon 1798
- blockaded Nelson 1799 and forced to surrender 1800 - some independence under Treaty of Amiens

Why was Malta of value to Britain?

- friendly deep water port that increased in importance after Suez Canal built
- vital point on British routes to India

When and how did Britain acquire the Falkland Islands?

- 1766 British established settlement, 1776 abandoned
- nominally under control of Ex-Spanish colonies (United Provences) 1828 authorised colony
→ captured 3 American sealing ships and put captains on trial Buenos Aires 1832 - British saw threat = reasserted sovereignty 1833

Why were the Falkland Islands of value to Britain?

- not of economic value
- geostrategic meaning = signalled end of mercantilism
- guard-post that commanded Cape Horn

When and how did Britain acquire Aden?

- formally acquired Aden in 1839, involvement began 1798 a British fleet stayed in Aden at invitation of local Sultan during campaign to counter Napoleon
- focus revisited 1830s driven by growing concerns over French expansion in Egypt, Russia ambitions in Persia and rise of Mehmet Ali Pasha 
- trigger 1837 when merchant ship Duria Dowlat plundered after running aground near Aden - used as pretext by Governor Sir Robert Grant of Bay who believed in a policy of pre-emptively seizing key positions to protect British trade routes and interest
- Commander Haines sent to demand satisfaction and establish a coaling station - negotiation failed but Haines claimed a vague letter accounted to a treaty of occupation 
- tensions escalated = Grant's deputy Fairish - privately backed by LDN - dispatched 2 frigates 700 troops
- January 1839 BEIC forced to accept occupation

Why was Aden of value to Britain?

- strategic and symbolic but little direct economic value
- asserting navy and political dominance
- historically a thriving entrepot central to spice and coffee trade, by 18th century redirected to geopolitical 
- crucial refuelling stations for British steam ships going between Bombay and Suez Isthmus shorter than around Cape of Good Hope

How were domestic policies changing? (acquisition of Cyprus)

- 1870s Palmerston'e thinking in Conservative Party encapsulated by PM Disraeli and Salisbury
→ supported increased naval power and territorial expansion (imperialists)
- largest rival = Russia - largely out of reach of Navy
- Liberal party different view under PM Gladstone (PM 4 times 1868-94) preferred minimal government expenditure and minimal overseas involvement
→ 1871 peace with USA (Washington Treaty) but concessions on fishing and compensation for damage caused to American shipping during civil war - swept out of power 1874 replaced by Disraeli

How did Disraeli signal his intent to expand British influence again? (acquisition of Cyprus)

- acquisition of shares in Suez Canal
- popular move = passed legislation made Queen Victoria 'Empress of India' of equal rank to the Russian Tsar Alexander 1876
- strategy to counter Russia = support/bolster states surrounding Russia e.g Afghanistan and old Ottoman Empire
- 1876 ignored Liberal appeals to censure Ottoman's for massacring Balkan nationalists, choosing to send Lord Salisbury to negotiate Ottoman support - against Russian expansionism (realpolitik)

What is realpolitik?

a system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations

Explain the 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War.

- Russia quickly defeated the Ottoman army and moved on to Constantinople
- give Russia access to Mediterranean Sea and potentially close the Black Sea to British ships
- jingoism was reaching its height in Britain - led to public calls for war with Russia
- Disraeli secured £6m to prepare navy and army for war - vote split Liberals with Gladstone
- 1878 Ottoman's surrendered and ceded control of the majority of the Balkans to Russia
→ Disraeli allied with German Chancellor Bismark to force Russians to abandon some = Dardenelles in Ottom hands, but Russia kept some
- Disraeli secured Cyprus from Ottoman's to use as British base in Eastern Mediterranean to counter any future Russian acts, safe port on route to India, could keep eye on Suez Canal
→ had to cede as relying on British support to reclaim land lost to Russia

What did Britain and the Ottoman Empire sign in 1878 and what did this do?

- the 'Cyprus Convention' - leased to Britain for £92,799 annually
- raised by taxing inhabitants
- Ottoman's never received anything, Disraeli insisted paid to LDN to pay the debts th Ottoman's owed Britain for its support in the Crimea War (1853-56) against the Russians

Why was the acquisition of Cyprus important?

confirmed shift in British imperial policy as now acquiring colonies purely to constrain ambitions of rival powers

What led to the Liberal Gladstone being put back into power in the election of 1880? (acquisition of Cyprus)

- Disraeli annexed the Transvaal (South Africa) 1877, invaded Afghanistan 1878, conquered Zululand 1879 → somewhat pyrrhic in nature e.g battle of Isandlwana Zulu nation killed over 1300 men (Gladstone painted conservatives rapacious)

What did Gladstone's time in office see? (acquisition of Cyprus)

- tried to cut naval expenditure at a time when Britain's rivals were expanding - drawn into conflict in Suez Canal = media criticism - navy underfunded
-  failure in Sudan 1885 = replaced by Lord Salisbury who wanted to expand in Africa so by 1889 Navy expenditure increased

How was British foreign policy evolving?

from one of acquisition of land/bases for profit and trade to a geopolitical one of securing territory to protect British assets and block the expansionist aims of rival nations, in a rapidly shrinking world, no matter the economic cost/benefit

Who was William Eward Gladstone?

- British statesman and liberal politician
- served as a PM for 12 years between 1868-1894

Summarise the attitude of liberals and conservatives towards Britain's foreign policy.

Liberals → most influential PM = Gladstone, preferred minimal government expenditure and minimal overseas investment
Conservatives → 1870s Palmerstone's new way of thinking was prevalent in the conservative party encapsulated by PMs Disraeli and Salisbury imbued by sense of imperial destiny and supported increased naval power and territorial expansion, both ardent imperialists willing to secure Britain's geopolitical pre-eminence over its imperial rivals at any cost irrespective of economic viability

What was Disraeli's period a zenith of?

jingoism

Why did the outcomes of the Russo-Turkish war worry Britain?

Russia emerges from the war more powerful
→ quick defeat of Turks opens up Mediterranean Sea to them - threat to British shipping
→ could close the Black Sea to British = threatening route to India

How did Britain respond to the outcomes of the Russo-Turkish war?

- Disraeli secures £6m to prepare for war
- allied with Imperial German Chancellor Bismark to force Russia to give up some gains
- secures Cyprus from Turks as payment for help on a lease of £92,799 (taxed inhabitants - privilege of being ruled by Brits) - but Turks never got any money as it was claimed it was paying for British help in the Crimean War

Why did Disraeli demand Cyprus from the Ottoman Empire?

- creates British naval base in Eastern Mediterranean to counter future Russian threat
- created another safe route to India
- keep an eye on Suez Canal investments

How did Gladstone coming to power alter British strategy?

reduce attempts at imperial expansion/foreign adventures

Why did Gladstone grow increasingly unpopular?

tried to reduce Naval spending