PSYC 1104: vocab ch 5-8

Learning

Changes in behavior as a result of experience

Associative learning

A developed connection between multiple stimuli

High order associations

Using conditioned associations to build new ones

Classical conditioning

• Invokes an involuntary response

• learn: Stimulus → response

• Uses an existing involuntary response and conditions that response to be associated with another stimulus

• Type of associative conditioning

Operant/Instrumental conditioning

• Invokes a voluntary response

• learn: Behavior → stimulus

• Ex: when someone learns to associate touching a lit stove with getting burnt

• Type of associative conditioning

Non-associative learning

Changes in responsivity due to exposure

Habituation / desensitization

Decreasing responsivity to a stimulus from exposure

Dishabituation

When, after habituation, there is a renewed interest in the original stimulus after being presented a new one

Sensitization

Increasing responsivity to a stimulus from exposure

Systematic desensitization

Uses methodical and gradual exposure to the source of a phobia to cause the extinction of the phobia

US

Unconditioned stimuli

UR

Unconditioned response

CS

Conditioned stimuli

CR

Conditioned response

Extinction

Loss of a CR after presentation of the CS without the US

(You can only make the dog salivate so many times without giving them meat before they stop salivating)

Spontaneous recovery

Often rapid re-emergence of the CR some time after extinction has occurred

Strength of a CR

• STR of the US

• Amount of training

• Biological predisposition

• Attention devoted to the CS

• Novelty of the CS

• Ability of CS to predict US

• Timing of training

Blocking

When classical conditioning fails because the intended CS is accompanied by a previously learned CS that predicts the US.

Shaping

Creating new behaviours by reinforcing approximate behaviour

Stimulus Generalization

When similar stimuli to the original stimuli invoke the same response.

Ex: I learned that touching a candle burnt my hand, and so I hold my hand back from all fire now.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to distinguish similar stimuli from each other, and not providing the same response to all of them.

Ex: just because I was robbed by one person who had a beard, I am not immediately skeptical of all bearded folk.

Contiguity in time

How time impacts the association between the stimuli and response

Forward pairing

• CS precedes US

• Most effective

Simultaneous pairing

• CS occurs simultaneously to US

• Moderately effective

Backwards pairing

• CS comes after US

• Barely effective

Ratio-based schedule of reinforcement

Schedule for the ratio of the number of behaviours to the number of reinforcements

Fixed ratio schedule (FR)

• Consistent reinforcement

• 2nd most effective

“A always precedes B”

Variable ratio schedule (VR)

• Partial/intermittent reinforcement

• 1st most effective

“A sometimes precedes B”

Interval-based schedule of reinforcement

Schedules that enforce an amount of time between reinforcements

Fixed interval schedule (FI)

• Consistent reinforcement time delay

• 4th most effective

“A precedes B, with a consistent delay between possible activations”

Variable interval schedule (VI)

• Varied reinforcement time delay (maintains an average with minor fluctuations)

• 3rd most effective

“A precedes B, with a varied delay between possible activations”

Discriminative stimuli

Any stimuli that provides context for determining which reinforcement contingencies are present

ex: a stop sign tells us to stop, before proceeding or risk a collision

Stimulus control

The influence discriminatory stimuli have over behaviour

Learned helplessness

When an experience with inescapable adverse stimulation makes an organism more willing to accept pain/discomfort

Law of Effect

• If behaviour → rewards, increase behaviour

• If behaviour → unpleasantness, decrease behaviour

from Edward Thorndike

Positive reinforcement

• Pleasant consequence

• Increases behaviour likelihood

Negative reinforcement

• Removes unpleasant consequence

• Increases behaviour likelihood

Positive punishment

• Introduction of an unpleasant stimuli

• Decreases behaviour likelihood

Negative punishment

• Removal of a pleasant stimuli

• Decreases behaviour likelihood

Primary reinforcers

Stimulus with survival value and intrinsic biological rewards

Secondary reinforcers

Neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer

Primary punishers

Stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism

Secondary punishers

Neutral stimuli that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher

Behaviour modification

Using operant conditioning principles to systematically change behaviour

Observational learning/modelling

Learning without overt training, in response to watching the behaviour of others

Imitation

Direct mimicry of another’s behaviour without learning

Vicarious learning

Learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences of another’s behaviour then chooses to either duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so

Mirror neurons

Neurons fired when an individual performs an action or sees another perform the same action

Insight learning

Sudden, clear learnings gained without trial and error necessarily

Eureka moment

Latent learning

Subconscious, passive learning without overt reinforcement

Implicit learning

Learning without awareness

Spatial navigation learning

Learning associations between stimuli relevant to navigating space

Semantic learning

Learning by connecting new knowledge to existing databases of knowledge

Memory

Recalling past events + learning from them

Laws of memory

1. Reconstructive

2. Encoding Specificity

Encoding

Recording of information in our brains.

Encoding specificity

• Only stored materials can be retrieved

• How materials were stored dictates how they can be retrieved

Context-dependent memory

Memories are influenced by the situations in which they are formed

• Factors include

  • locus

  • state of body/mind

Automatic processing

Encoding with little conscious awareness or effort

Effortful processing

Encoding through careful attention and conscious effort

Rehearsal

Act of repeating/reiterating information to increase retention

Spaced Practice Effect

Rehearsal over time facilitates retrieval

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetition of an idea or several to retain it

• typically for retention in the working memory

Elaborative rehearsal

Building new information into other memories, reiteration

• increases likelihood of retrieval

• Methods

  • Mnemonic devices

  • Organization (the chunking done automatically on occasion)

Storage

Retention of information for later use

Schema

The information contained within the mind regarding a specific topic

Semantic code

Representation of information and events based on meaning

Chunking

Process of fitting concepts into categories

Increases retention

Sensory memory

Initial memory storage box

• code: information specific to each sense

• duration: very brief, depends on the sense

• capacity: large

• contents: basic sensory info

• interference: decay

Iconic memory

• immediate visual memory

• sensory memory type

Echoic memory

• immediate auditory memory

• sensory memory type

Working memory

Secondary memory storage box for active problem solving, AKA short term memory

• code: prominently verbal, sometimes visual and/or other senses

• duration: 2-30 seconds, as long as rehearsal can be maintained

• capacity: memory span / required rehearsal time, 7 ± 2 items

• contents: anything

• interference: decay, interference

Central executive

• Actively processes many kinds of information

• limited storage

• part of working memory

Phonological storage

• Passively holds sounds and meaning

• short duration

• part of working memory

Visuospatial sketchpad

• Passively holds visual ideas

• short duration

• part of working memory

Long-term memory

Final memory storage box

• code: meaning + other

• duration: forever (to our knowledge)

• capacity: infinite (to our knowledge)

• contents: two way’s, Schacter’s way and Tulving’s way

• interference: lack of retrieval cues, decay, interference, repression/directed forgetting

Schacter’s way

Model of thinking about long term memory in terms of usage.

• implicit

• explicit

Tulving’s way

Model of thinking about long term memory in terms of contents.

• episodic

• semantic

• procedural

Implicit memory

• Cannot be consciously retrieved

• long term memory type

Schacter’s way

Explicit memory

• Can be consciously retrieved

• long term memory type

Schacter’s way

Episodic memory

• personal, autobiographical, event memory

• long term memory type

Tulving’s way

Semantic memory

• factual, encyclopedic memory

• long term memory type

Tulving’s way

Procedural memory

• memory of how to do things

• long term memory type

Tulving’s way

Parallel Distributed-Processing (PDP) model

Memory information stored as a pattern of neural activation across neural networks.

AKA connectionist model

Retrieval

Recovery of stored information

Interference

Anything that prevents, interrupts or distorts recalled information.

Proactive interference

Old information interferes with new information

Retroactive interference

New information interfering with recalling old information

Omission errors

Memory detail error where details are not included

• More likely to occur for details the recaller sees no reason for

Intrusion errors

Memory detail information error where information is added by the recaller that was not part of the original idea

• proves that memory is reconstructive

Immediate testing time errors

Ship → slip

• phonological error

  • Sound is somewhat recalled, meaning is out the window

Delayed testing time errors

Ship → boat

• Semantic error

  • Meaning is somewhat recalled, sound is out the window

Serial positioning effect

More likely to recall the first and last information you were presented in a series

Primacy effect

More likely to recall initial information because it has entered long term memory

Recency effect

More likely to recall final information because it is still in working memory

Retrieval cues

Anything associated with a long-term memory that increases it’s likelihood of retrieval

Most conducive method to recalling information

Priming

Activation of one stored piece of information, causing a chain link of activation until the specific memory is retrieved.

Recognition tasks

Retrieval tasks in which participants are asked to identify whether they’ve seen a particular item before.

• Utilizes retrieval cues

• Increased likelihood of retrieval

Recall tasks

Retrieval tasks in which people are asked to produce information with little to no retrieval cues

• Does not utilize retrieval cues

• Decreased likelihood of retrieval

Flashbulb memories

Detailed + near permanent memories of an emotionally significant event or the circumstances around hearing of it

• Almost everyone knows what they were doing when they heard about 9/11