Psych 1100 Exam 1

sensation vs. perception

Sensation: is the process of reciving stimulus energies from the external enviornment and transforming those energies into neural energy

• the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tounge detect physical energy, such as light, sound, and heat. When teh receptor cells registera stimulus, the energy is converted to an electrochemical impulse that relays information about the stuimulus through the nervous system to the brain.

• when it reaches the brain, information travels to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex, and the brain produces a perception.

• perception: is thr process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense

bottom-up processing

• sensory receptors register information about the external envoirnment and send it up to the brain for interpretation (trying to make sense of information)

top-down processing

• starts with cognitive processing in the brain.

• we begin with some sense of what is happening and apply that framwork to incoming information.

• can happen even in teh absence of stimulus

sensory receptors

secialized cells that detect stimuli and transmit information to sensory (afferent) nerves

sensory receptors fall into classes based on the type of energy they detect

• Photoreception: detection of light (sight)

• Mechanoreception: detection of pressure, vibration, and movement (touch, hearing, balance

• chemoreception: detection of chemical stimuli (smell and taste)

absolute threshold

minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect.

• noise: irrelevant and competing stimuli, any distracting stimuli

difference threshold

degree that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected

webers law is the principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant porportion to be perceived as different

subliminal perception

detection of information below the level of conscious awareness

• priming: refers to activating a particular concept of idea in memory so that a person is affected by that cancept, even without being aware that it has been presented

signal detection theory

focuses on decision making about stimuli under conditions of uncertainty

• Hit: You ask, and the person says yes

• Miss: the person would hae said yes, but you do not ask

• False alarm: You think that person seemed interested, but your off is politely declined

• Correct rejection: you do not ask, and the person would have said no

Decision making in signal theory (2 components)

• Information acquisition: the gathering of relevant indicators.

• Criterion: the standards that will be used to make a decision.

attention

process of focusing awareness on a narrow aspect of the envoirnment.

• Selective attention: ability to concentrate on one voice among many in a noisy crowd

sensory adaptation

a change in the responsiveness of teh sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation

EX: adjusting to a cold swimming pool

retina

light-sensitive surface that records electromagnetic energy and converts it into neural impulses for processing in the brain.

fovea: where vision is best (contains only cones)

two visual receptor cells

• rods: are receptors in teh retina that are sensitve to light but not very useful for color vision

• cones: ligth sensitive, but they require a large amount of light to respond than the rids.

trichomatic theory

states that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths

opponent process theory

cells in teh visual system respond to red-green and blue-yellow colors.

gestalt psychology

how people naturally organize their perceptions by sertain patterns

• closure: when we see disconnect or incomplete figures, we fill in the spaces and see then as complete figures.

• proximity: when we see objects that are near each other, they tend to be seen as a unit

• similarity: when we see objects that are similar to each other, thy tend to be seen a unit

depth perception

ability to percive three dimensionally.

• binocular: cues rooted in the fact you have two eyes. depends on the combination of the image in teh left and right eyes and on the way to two eye work together.

• convergence: is another binocular cue to depth ad distance. when your eyes cross to look at something.

• monocular: cues are aspects of stumulis that siggest depth even for one eye.

parts of the eye

• sclera: white, outer part of the eye that helps maintain the shape of the eye and protect from injury

• Iris: colored part of the eye, muscles that control the part of the pupil and the amount of light that gets into the eye

• pupil: blacks teh opening in the enter of the iris.

to get a good picture of the world, the eye must be able to adjust the amount of light that eneters.

different molocular cues

• farmiliar size: this cue to the depth and distance of objects is based on what we have learned from experince about the standard size of objects.

• height in the field of view: all other things being equal, objects positioned higher in a picture are seen as farther away

• linear perspectie and relative size: objects that are further away take up less space on the retina, so things appear smaller are percived to be further away

• overlap: we percive an object that partilly conceals or overlyps another object as closer

• shading: this cue involves changes in perception due to position of the light and the position of teh vewiwe.

• texture gradient: texture becomes denser and finer the farther away it is from the viewer.

perception of motion

• tought to occur later in the visual processing and involved the brain

• scientists have discovered that the primate retina dose have neurons that detect motion.

• these neurons are call paracol ganglion cells, are sensitive to motion

the figure-ground relationship

is the principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stumuli that stands out (figures) and those that are left over (background)

• is a gesalt principle

dependant variable

The outcome; the variable that may change in an experiment in response to changes in the environment. 

independant variable

a manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are

control group

The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable.

double-blind experiment

an experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated.

validity

• refers to the soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. 

reliability

• The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance. 

longitudinal design

• involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time. 

meta-analysis

•  a statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature on a particular topic, allowing the researcher to assess the strength of the relationship between the variables. 

correlational research

• examines the relationship between in order to find out whether and how two variables change together. 

placebo effect

a phenomenon in which the experimentation of the participants, rather than actual treatment, produces an outcome.

random assignment

• the assignment of participants to experimental groups to reduce the likelihood that a study’s results will be due to preexisting differences between groups (assign participants to groups by chance). 

operational definition

a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study.

cross-sectional design

• type of correlational study in which variables are measured at a single time point. 

case study

 in depth look at a single person. Performed mainly by clinical psychologists for practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated and tested with other people.

third variable problem

• the circumstance in which a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds (correlation does not equal causation). 

heritability

•  the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group members. 

concordance rates

•  the probability of percentage that a pair of individuals (usually twins or blood related) will both share a specific trait or disorder, given that one person in the pair has it. 

nature and nurture

• Nature refers to a person’s biological inheritance, especially the person’s genes; nurture refers to a person’s environmental and social experiences.

action potential

• a brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon.

• When the axon is at rest,  the neuron has a mild negative charge because negatively charged ions are on the inside of the membrane and positively charged ions are on the outside of the membrane.

• Then, when a neuron fires, the tiny gates (or channels) open and positively charged sodium ions rush in so that for a brief moment the neuron has a positive charge. The activity sweeps down the axon as the channels open and then close.

• After firing, the sodium channels close and potassium channels open, moving the positively charged potassium ions out of the neuron and returning it to its previous negative charge.

• The electrical impulse has to reach the threshold or else it will lose its intensity and not fire all the way down, this is called the all or nothing principle. 

amygdala

• is an almond shaped structure located inside the brain towards the base. It is involved in the detection of objects that are relevant to adaptation and survival, like food. Neurons to the amygdala often fire selectively at the sight of such stimuli, and lesions in the amygdala can cause animals to engage in incorrect behavior such as attempting to eat, fight, or even mate with an object like a chair. Active in response to unpredictable stimuli. Emotional awareness and expression through its many connections with a variety of brain areas. 

corpus callosum

•  a large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides. 

basal ganglia

• surrounds the thalamus in large clusters of neurons/ganglia. Works with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements. Enables people to engage in habitual activities such as riding a bike and vacuuming carpet. People with damage to the basal ganglia experience either unwanted movement, such as constant writhing or jerking of limbs, or too little movement, as in the slow and deliberate movements of people with Parkinson's disease. 

frontal lobe

•  are the portions of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead that are involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles. When damaged it affects people’s personality and ability to engage in self control. 

hippocampus

has a special role in memory. People with damage to the hippocampus cannot retain any new conscious memories after the damage. The hippocampus helps us recall things by waking up the areas of the brain that were used when we originally encountered the information- reinstating a previous brain state for memory.

hypothalamus

• a small forebrain structure just below the thalamus, monitors three rewarding activities- eating, drinking, and sex- as well as emotional, stress, and reward. Helps direct the endocrine system. As a regulator of the body’s internal state. It is sensitive to changes in the blood and neural input, and it responds by influencing the secretion of hormones and neural outputs. 

neurons

are the nerve cells that handle information processing.

neurotransmitters

• chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron. 

neuroplasticity

•  the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. 

central nervous system (CNS)

• is made up of the brain and spinal cord. More than 99 percent of all nerve cells in our body are located in the CNS. 

sympathetic nervous system

• the part of the automatic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress. Triggers the body’s release of stress hormones that allow you to focus attention on what needs to be done NOW (“Fight or Flight”). 

peripheral nervous system

•  is the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. The functions of the PNS are to bring information to and from the brain to the spinal cord and to carry out commands of the CNS to execute various muscular and glandular activities. 

parasympathetic nervous system

• part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body (“tend and befriend” or “rest and digest”) 

synapses

• are tiny spaces between neurons, and the space between neurons that the synapses create is referred to as the synaptic gap. Lie between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. 

thalamus

• is a forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the central core of the brain. It serves as a very important relay station, functioning much like a server in a computer network. Keeps things organized and moves them to the right place. Sorts information adn sends it to the appropriate places in the forebrain for further integration and interpretation. One area works with information from the sense receptors; another region seems to be involved in sleep and wakefulness, having tied with reticular formation; and yet another receives information from the cerebellum and projects it to the motor area of the cerebral cortex. 

temporal lobe

• the part of the cerebral cortex just above the ears, are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory. Has a number of connections to the limbic system. Therefore, if people have damage to this lobe they cannot retain long-term memory. 

biopsychosocial model

biological, psychological, and social cultural factors often act in combination with one another to produce a mental health condition. These conditions are all significant ingredients in producing mental issues and these factors can combine in unique ways so that from person to person mental disorders can differ. There is no one gene or experience that will  cause mental health issues; therefore, we must consider a variety of interacting factors from each of the domains of experience.

emotion-focused coping

• involves responding to the stress that you are feeling, trying to manage your emotional reaction, rather than confronting the problem itself. Some people try to avoid the source of stress, rationalize what is happening, deny the problem is occurring, laugh it off, or call on religious faith for support. 

problem focused coping

• is the cognitive strategy of squarely facing one’s troubles and trying to solve them. Might involve coming up with goals and implementation intentions. 

epigenetics

 how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect how your genes work, without changing your actual DNA sequence like lifestyle and diet, environment and stress, & aging and development

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

• common effects on the body when stressful demands are placed on it.

• Three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

• Alarm is the temporary stage of shock during which resistance to illness and stress falls below normal limits. The body will release hormones that adversely affect the immune system which causes the individual to become prone to infection and injury.

• In resistance, a number of glands throughout the body manufacture different hormones that protect the individual in many ways. Endocrine and sympathetic nervous system activity are not as high as in the alarm stage. The body's immune system can fight off infection with remarkable efficiency and release hormones that help reduce inflammation.

• Then if the body's prior effort to eliminate the stressors fail when they enter the exhaustion stage, they might collapse from fatigue or succumb to illness which can result in irreversible damage like heart attacks or death. 

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)

• complex set of interactions among the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands. Regulates various body processes, including digestion, immune system response, emotion, and energy expenditure. Also controls reactions to stressful events. For example, when the brain detects a threat in the environment, it signals the hypothalamus to produce corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). In turn, CRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce another hormone that causes the adrenal glands to release cortisol or the “stress hormone”. 

sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system (SAM)

• A specific neuroendocrine pathway within the border sympathetic nervous system. It specifically describes the circuit where the brain signals the sympathetic nervous system to activate the adrenal medulla. Instead of just signaling an organ directly via a nerve ending, the preganglionic sympathetic fibers prompt the adrenal medulla to release hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) directly into the bloodstream.

postitve reappraisal

• reinterpreting a potentially stressful experience as less threatening, more valuable, or even beneficial. People look at a situation differently so that it is not as threatening. 

selective attention

• is the ability to focus on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. For example, the ability to concentrate on one person's voice in a noisy environment. 

declarative/explicit memory

is the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts and events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated. For example, recounting the events in a movie you have seen or recalling the names of the justices on the U.S. supreme court.

• Includes episodic memory which is the retention of information about where, when, and what of life’s happening- basically, how we remember life's episodes

• somatic memory, which pertains to a person’s knowledge about the world. Which includes areas of expertise, general knowledge about the meanings of words, famous individuals, important places, and common things.

non declarative/ implicit memory

is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience. For example, in the skill of playing tennis and snowboarding, or any physical act.

• Includes procedural memory which involves memory for skills (like driving a car)

• classical conditioning which is a form of learning of associations between stimuli so that one comes to evoke the same response as the other

• priming which is the activation of information better and faster. 

serial position effect

• is the tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle. The primary effect refers to better recall for items at the beginning of a list and the recency effect refers to better recall of items from the end of the list. 

Atkinson-shiffrin theory and working memory

•  Memory storage involve three systems: 

• Sensory memory: time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds. Holds information from the world in its original sensory memory for only an instant, it is very rich and detailed memory but we lose that information quickly unless it is transferred to short term memory. Includes echoic memory which is auditory and iconic memory which is visual. 

• Short-term memory: time frames up to 30 seconds and is a limited capacity memory system and can store information longer than sensory memory. Follows “The magic number 7 plus or minus 2). The memory span refers to the number of digits a person can report back in order after a single presentation of them. To remember more you can use chunking, which involves grouping things together in order to remember them better. Also you can use rehearsal which is just repeating the information multiple times either in your head or allowed. 

• Long-term memory: time frames up to a lifetime, and stores huge amounts of information for a long time. Includes explicit and implicit memory. 

• Working memory: refers to the combination of components that include short-term memory and attention that allow us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks. Is the mental place where thinking occurs and is an active memory system unlike short term memory which is a passive system. Can remember 4 +/- 1, that is 3 to 5 chunks. Doesn;t just hold information in the mind but moves and reorganizes it to help people understand, make decisions, and solve problems. 

three models of working memory

• The phonological loop is specialized to briefly store sheepish-based information about the sounds of language. It contains two separate components: an acoustic code (sounds we hear), which delays in a few seconds, and rehearsal, which allows us to repeat the words in the phonological store

• The visuo-spatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery. Is limited because if there are too many items in this sketchpad we cannot represent them accurately enough to retrieve them successfully. Also it functions independently from the phonological loop. 

• The central executive integrates information not only from the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad but also from long-term memory. Plays an important role in attention, planning, and organization. Monitors which information deserves our attention and which we should ignore. 

elaboration

•  refers to the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding. When we elaborate during encoding, we develop many mental connections between new information and what we already know. It is like creating a big spider web of links between new information. 

levels of processing

• a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep

• Shallow: physical and perceptual features are analyzed. The lines, and contour that make up the physical appearance of an object, such as a car, are detected. 

• Intermediate: stimulus is recognized and labeled. The object is recognized as a car 

• Deep: semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used. Associations connected with the car are brought to mind- you think about the porsche or ferrari you hoped to buy or the fun you and your friends had on spring break when you drive a car to the beach. 

decay

• when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates. The passage of time always increases forgetting. 

proactive interference

• occurs when material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later. For example, if you had a friend from 10 years ago named prudence and then last night you met a friend named patience, you might end up calling your new friend prudence because the old information interferes with the new information. 

retroactive interference

• occurs when newer material disrupts the retrieval of older information. For example, you recently became friends with Ralph, and then you try to send a note to your old friend Raul, you might accidentally address him as Ralph because the new information interferes with the old information. 

motivated forgetting

• occurs when an individual forgets something because it is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering is intolerable. Could be consequence of emotional trauma experience by victims of  rape or physical abuse, war veterans, surviors of plane crashes, and other traumatic events. 

exectutive functions

higher-level mental processes managed by the frontal lobe that let you plan, focus, remember instructions, and judge items. Helps with working memory, cognitive flexibility (thinking outside the box), and inhibitory control (self control).

latent content

• is the dream’s hidden content, its unconscious- and true- meaning. For example, if a person has a dream about riding a train and talking to a friend, the train ride would be the dreams manifest content, and the latent content is the dreams' deeper true meaning. 

activation-synthesis theory

• dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain. Dreams result from the brain's attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep. 

theory of mind

• refers to a person’s understanding that others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences. 

REM sleep

is an active stage of sleep during which the most vivid dreaming occurs. During this stage, there are fast waves similar to those of relaxed wakefulness, and the sleeper’s eyeballs move up and down and from left to right (rapid eye movement).

Non-REM sleep (Stage N1)

• when people are just falling asleep, they enter the first stage of non-REM sleep. Rapid eye movement doesn’t occur during these stages. Drowsy sleep type. A person may experience sudden muscle movements or myoclonic jerks. Theta Waves (slower frequency and greater amplitude than alpha waves). 

Non-REM sleep (stage N2)

• muscle activity decreases, and the person is not consciously aware of the environment. Theta waves continue but are interspersed with a defining characteristic of stage N2 sleep: sleep spindles which involve a sudden increase in high-frequency wave bursts and are an important role of sleep in memory. 

Non-REM (stage N3)

• characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves during sleep and is the deepest sleep when the brain waves are least like the brain waves from when we are awake. When sleepwalking or talking can occur, and if you are awakened during this stage you are likely to be disoriented or confused. 

benefits of sleep

• many benefits from physical growth and brian development in infants and children. Deep sleep coincides with the release of growth hormones in children. Getting the correct hours of sleep is linked to important brain development that occurs during adolescence. 

effects of sleep deprivation

• poor academic performance, having social jet lag, increased consumption of sugary foods, weight gain, and more susceptibility to physical injury. Can hinder cognitive functions like problem solving and memory. Associated with physical and psychological problems, including diabetes, coronary heart disease, chronic liver disease, dementia, pneumonia, anxiety, and depression. 

circadian rhythms

• are daily behavioral or physiological cycles. Involved with sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood-sugar levels (basically the biological clock). 

meditation

• involves attaining a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry. They include focused attention, which is bringing one's awareness to one’s inner life and attending to one’s thoughts, and open monitoring, which refers to the capacity to observe one’s thoughts as they happen without getting preoccupied by them (a person is able to reflect without becoming attached to a particular thought or idea. 

insomnia

• the inability to sleep. Insomnia can involve problems, falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking up too early. For short-term insomnia, many doctors prescribe sleeping pills, but normally they stop working after several weeks. Mild insomnia often can be reduced by practicing good sleep habits, such as always going to bed at the same time, even on weekends, and sleeping in a dark, quiet place. In more serious cases, doctors experiment with light therapy, melatonin supplements, and other ways to alter circadian cycles. 

sleep walking (somnambulism) and sleep talking (somnilogy

• sleepwalking occurs during the deepest stages of sleep and there is no specific cause but it is more likely to occur when people are sleep deprived or have been drinking. 

mightmares and night terrors

• a nightmare is a frightening dream that awakens a dreamer from REM sleep. The nightmares content invariably involves dangerous situations, and they are common in young children. Associated with life stressors such as loss of a job,the death of a loved one, or conflicts with others.

• A night terror features sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear. Accompanied by a number of physiological reactions, such as rapid heart rate and breathing, loud screams, heavy perspiration, and movement. Often occurs during slow-wave stage N3 (non-REM) sleep.

narcolepsy

involves sudden, overpowering urge to sleep. This urge is so uncontrollable that the person may fall asleep while talking or standing up. They immediately energy REM sleep rather than progressing through the first four sleep stages. They are often very tired during the day. Can be triggered by emotional reactions, such as a surprise, laughter, excitement, or anger. There are problems with neurons in the hypothalamus and may have an autoimmune component.

sleep apnea

• when individuals stop breathing because the windpipe fails to open or because the brain processes involved in respiration fail to open or because the brain processes involved in respiration fail to work properly. People with this disorder experience many brief awakenings during the night so they can breathe, although they aren’t usually aware, and this makes them drowsy throughout the day. Common signs of sleep apnea are loud snoring, punctuated by silence. Untreated it can cause high blood pressure, stroke, and sexual dysfunction. In the day it can cause loss of productivity and relationship problems. Commonly treated by weight loss programs, side sleeping, propping the head on a pillow, or wearing a CPAP. 

psychoactive drugs

• act on the nervous system to alter consciousness., modify perception, and change mood. Some people use psychoactive drugs to deal with life’s difficulties. Drinking, smoking, and taking drugs reduce tension, relieve boredom and fatigue, and provide a temporary escape from life. 

tolerance

the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effects

depressants

• slow down mental and physical activity. Examples are alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opioids. 

alcohol

• powerful drug that acts on the body primarily as a depressant and slows the brain’s activities. People “loosen up” after a few drinks because the brain areas involved in inhibition and judgement become increasingly impaired. Activities that require intellectual functioning and motor skills, such as driving, become harder to perform. Eventually the drinker falls asleep, and in extreme cases the person may lapse into a coma and die. 

barbiturates

such as nembutal and seconal, are depressants that decrease the activity in the central nervous system. Used to be prescribed as sleep aids. In heavy dosages, they can lead to impaired memory, poor decision making, difficulty breathing, and even death. When combined with alcohol, they can be lethal. Withdrawal can cause seizures. Since they have such addictive potential and risk of toxic overdose, they are often replaced by tranquilizers to treat insomnia.

tranquilizers

such as valium and Xanax, are depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation. In small doses tranquilizers can bring on a feeling of calm; higher doses can lead to drowsiness and confusion. Tolerance can develop in a few weeks causing these drugs to be addictive.

opioids

• narcotics, or opioids, are a class of drugs that act on the brain’s endorphin receptors. They include opium and its natural derivatives (morphine and heroin) as well as synthetic chemicals created to mimic the activity of opium. They depress the activity in the CNS and eliminate pain. Opioids are powerful painkillers that affect the synapses in the brain that use endorphins as their neurotransmitter. They bind to the brain's opioid receptor and increase the production of dopamine. After taking this, a person can feel euphoric and pain free and has an increased appetite for food and sex. They are highly addictive and cause painful withdrawal.