Zoonotes3 mating systems, aggression, defense

Mating systems is made up of

monogamy, promiscuity, polygamy= polygyny, polyandry, polygynandry,

mating systems result from anisogamy and the bateman gradient as well as

ecology, parental care, phylogeny, sexual selection

Mating systems are defined by

how many individuals a male or female may copulate with. whether the male and female form a pair bond and cooperate and parental care and then how long the pair bond is maintained

______ makes sense when you cant control mates, while _____ makes sense when mates or resources are clumped.

monogamy; polygamy

home ranges are typically

promiscuity

polygyny is

1 male and many females

polyandry is

1 female and many males

polygynandry

both genders mate with others but do form pair bonds for some time

In Monogamy all males have same mating success, in polygyny male mating success ranges from 0 to 2 mates. While, in strong polygeny

one male could have eight mates while most males have 0

____ benefit from multiple matings while ___ is less likely to benefit

males; females

monogamy definition

one M and one F per life or breeding season where neither sex monopolizes more than one member of opposite sex.

the one reason that does not support monogamy occuring is

To increase competition between males for access to females and reduce shared parental investment.

sociopath theory

supports monogamy as the females become highly aggressive towards all other females

pop-em out theory

supports monogamy as females breed repeatdly

good-wife theory

of monogamy suggests that males benefit from having a faithful female partner because it increases confidence in paternity. A male stays with one female to ensure his offspring are genetically his, Monogamy reduces uncertainty about paternity, This encourages males to invest time, protection, and resources into raising offspring, The female benefits from consistent parental care and support.

monogamy acts as a big compromise for males

They do it because it ensures survival of their offspring or because great competition with other males

polygyny

Individual males may mate with more than one female per breeding season. it is when sexual dimorphism is very common 

Types of polygyny are

resource defense, female defense, scramble competition, and lek

Resource defense

type of polygny where male defense territory or resource and attracts females. It indirectly controls access to females by monopolizing critical resources

Female-defense

type of polygyny where females are in groups and the males defend them thus directly controls access to females. These are also known as harems 

you should expect polygyny when

there is a greater difference in quality of M territories

scramble competition

type of polygyny where females are widely dispersed, males race to search for and find females. the males that are most persistent, durable and perceptive are most successful

Lek

type of polygyny where mates or resources not monopolizable. female select mates from aggregations of males based on quality of display or territory

hotspot hypothesis

males aggregate at certain points because females tend to travel along certain routes that intersect at certain points known as hotspots. subordinate males gather around highly attractive males to increase their exposure to females.

the female preference hypothesis

females prefer sites with large groups of males as they believe safety is more mate choice 

harem

is a mating system where one dominant male mates with multiple females. The male often defends and controls access to the group of females, sometimes excluding competing males.

topi females prefer to mate with dominant males who they have mated with before. however, when two fertile females compete for one male, the male is more likley to choose …

the female that he has not mated with before (Coolidge effect)

what are the reasons for polgyny to be more common in mammals

Less mobile than birds, females can't assess male qualities as well, females are herded by males can't fly away, predation pressures and kinship

polyandry

females mates with more than one male. the sex-role reversal is often in seahorses stickleback fish and pipe fish. Females court males, lay eggs in male pouch and males care for an hatches them.

madame bovary strategy

Example of how polyandry also exists when a female has one social partner but then has one or more extra pairmates that Supply her with sperm but nothing else

costs of polyandry

males may defect or abort parental care if cuckoldry occurs. increased risk of parasites and sexually transmitted diseases

cassanova gene

The idea is that if a female mates with multiple males, her sons may inherit genetic traits associated with higher mating success.

The non-genetic direct benefits of females mating with more than one male during reproductive cycle are

fertility assurance and stimulation of ovulation, more paternal care, nutrients from courtship feeding and resource acquisition, protection from an avoidance of male harassment and infanticide 

Genetic benefits of polyandry where females made with more than one male during a single reproductive cycle are 

egg fertilization insurance which means it is sufficient, better sperm with jeans are required from preferred sexual partners, genetic variety from genetically diverse sperm where they will increase genetic compatibility and just in general that's some sperm will be better egg fertilizers and the resulting offspring are more diverse

Polygynandry

a mating system where multiple males mate with multiple females within the same social group. Both males and females have multiple mating partners, there is no exclusive pair bond, multiple males may compete for access to females, females may mate with several males during one breeding period.

in Tasmanian hens and galapogos hawks

the female mates with brothers, group may then attract another female. cooperate in incubation and care of young.

promiscuity

lack a long-term relationship, no bond just copulation. typically both sexes have multiple partners

overlap promiscuity

Only common in mammals where solitary individuals have home ranges and the female doesn't need a male while the male home range is greater than a female's home range 

Hierarchical Promiscuity

Is shown in dominance hierarchies, males may help protect females usually as a group not individuals

Mating systems are potential but not determined. it is possible to have a variety within a species. It is based on

food abundance and distribution, environmental conditions, predation whether female needs males or not, parental care requirements 

dunnock birds are interesting because

used to be monogamous but now use every mating system especially promiscuous

out of all types of mating systems _____ has the highest percentage of aggression

female defense polygyny

aggression is defined as

overt behavior directed at harming another individual with goal of gaining some advantage

agonistic behavior

threat, attack, submission, withdrawal always a winner and a loser

ultimate reasons for harm of aggression

not conscious intent but decreases on others fitness to increase own

proximate reasons for harm of aggression

 unpleasant, pain, noxious, deprive of resources or mate 

innate aggression

Can be bred for aggressive or submissive breeds/strains of an animal. testosterone is involved in which male and females have different levels. the highest level of testosterone in males occurs after puberty which causes the highest levels of aggression as well 

aggression changes in castrated males

decreases aggression unless given more testosterone

fluctuations in testosterone level within an individual over time _____ predict changes and aggression level

do not

You need to testosterone for normal aggressive behavior but within the range of _____ normal to two times of normal, aggression levels are same 

20%

Learned aggression types

If have more social experience with aggression than more aggression remains after castration, social deprivation experiments in which also people train animals to be guard dogs, excessive punishment or permissiveness in children, watching violent TV 

aggression is made up of

innate and learned components

benefits of aggression

Cost of aggression is low to actor, probability of gaining a resource without aggression is low, genetic relatedness between actor and rival is low, cost to rival is low

intrasexual aggression

Is the most diverse and widespread form. males benefit through mating privileges gaining territory or resources to be successful in established dominance. while females benefit from protection of young and Nest area and gain resources for self and young 

intersexual aggression

Really shown during times of courtship. when it comes to males to females they show dominance, get females to be submissive and keep females from meeting with another male. when it comes to females to males they assess dominance of the male, protect Young from male, increase investment of males in females 

parental aggression

weaning process in mammals and forced dispersal in birds and mammals

infanticide aggression

Is an extreme form of parental aggression where too many young are there to care for, to reduce competition among offspring, female are able to become pregnant again, more food for their own offspring 

Peer/siblicide aggression

Happens between members of the same clutch / litter, food competition, dominant hierarchy and litters for milk source. dominant siblings often kill subordinates when food is limited

redirected aggression

When two individuals in an aggressive counter, one attacks another member of the group instead of the rival or attacks an inanimate object

defensive aggresion

prey defending self against predator

predator aggression

is behavior directed toward a predator to protect an individual, offspring, or group from being attacked. such as mobbing

contests

displaying information that allows contestants to make such assessments should then be general means for settling disputes, fights occur only when it can't be settled by display or when one can test it is checking up on the other

amazon knifefish contests

Larger males produce higher frequency electric signaling which the fish only respond aggressively towards an artificial signal played at a lower frequency than their own 

what are the 5 aggressive phases

1) cost/benefit analysis. 2) threat stage. 3) redirected aggression can occur if threat stage elevated. 4) actual fighting push and shove. 5) all-out-fight costs greatest clear intent to harm

most encounters of aggression stop after the _________ bc the chance of winning can be accuratley assessed.

threat stage

cost/benefit analysis

organism questions if they really want this resource - is it worth the risk

threat stage

aggressive displays to convince rival of asymmetry

redirected aggression

can occur if threat stage is elevated. aim anger at something else.

actual fighting stage 4 is when

push and shoves begin to show dominance

all out fight

intent to do physical harm to one another is clear.

Desirability/importance of resource

is critical in determining how far the encounter will go

The Rival assesses aggressors advantage to be greater than

they can first withdrawal turn away and run, next do submissive behavior which is often regressive and the male acts like a female to stop the attack and reveal vulnerable parts of the body 

animals don't typically kill submissive opponents.

The loser may fight back harder if continue to attack after submission. superficial wounds are often worse than immediate deaths

humans are innately aggressive and capable of aggression given the right context. it is ______ which means certain species typical displays that show aggression

species-specific

some specific examples of human aggressions are

Facial expression such as a snarl, grimace, and large forehead area, Ray's lip, stare, glare, there's vocalizations, increased redness in face, body postures that show weapons standing straight leaning body into person wide stands, often redirect aggression 

submissive displays

are lower head and eyes, look away, mouth and jaw clothes, lean back, hands in pocket are behind back, crying 

primary defense

escape detection by predator

secondary defense

escape capture once detected=

______ is a constant threat

predation

crypsis

camouflage plus appropriate behavior, blend in with environment

primary defense - Color

Break the Contour/ Outline: disruptive coloration, counter shading,

transparency

dominant form of crypsis in aquatic environment. jellyfish, fish larvae, etc.

color change examples

chameleon, anole, cuttlefish

Polymorphisms of Color:

fox squirrels in eastern U.S., color varies between tan, gray, and black, dark color maintained by, environment alternates, therefore both tan and black, selected for at different times

BEHAVIOR defense of selecting appropriate background

Ex: moths- orient selves on bark so marking aligned with direction of bark ridges

Katydid

disguise themselves as leaves and move with the wind on the branch

Movement/ Lack of Movement

remain still, or move very slowly, move rapidly, then abruptly stop, newborn northern water snakes, coral snakes, banded, so blend when still, appear solid when moving quickly

defense strategy of using the environment example

spider crabs decorate themselves with algae, barnacles, sponges, debris

reptiles have learned how to do

tool use

Aposematic coloration

Brightly colored morphology in a species that stands out from the environment and is associated with noxious chemicals or poisons that make them unpalatable or dangerous prey

animals with warning coloration are often _____; form aggregations

diurnal

mullerian mimicry

two noxious species look alike, so that predators must consume fewer in order to learn to avoid them

Batesian mimicry

harmless species resembles harmful species works if predator has eaten harmful animal or has innate fear of certain color pattern/cues.

female hyennas using sex reversible strategies can be an example of

mimicry

diverting attention is a secondary defense where

distract predator, divert attention so escape is possible

eyespots are used to

startle or frighten predator if eyes are large, bright, or flashed suddenly, serve as targets to wrong part of body, therefore escape with less than fatal damage

false heads

predator often attacks head of prey first, some prey have evolved heads at posterior end of body

luna moth

adapted to have long tails which confuse bats on which area to attack

autonomy

ability to break off a body part when attacked