Physical Development

Cephalocaudal trend

biological and developmental pattern where growth, physical shape, and motor control happen from the head down to the feet

Proximodistal trend

the pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from the center of the body outward to the extremities

Neuron

specialized nerve cell that form the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system

Glial cells

non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) that support, protect, and nourish neurons, but do not generate electrical impulses (action potentials)

Dendrites

branched, tree-like extensions of a nerve cell (neuron) that receive electrochemical signals from other neurons and carry them toward the cell body (soma)

Synapse

a specialized junction that allows a neuron (nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to a target cell such as a muscle or gland

Synaptic pruning

the brain's natural process of removing weak or unused neural connections (synapses) to make active pathways faster and more efficient

Lateralization

the tendency for specific cognitive functions, neural processes, or physical behaviors to be specialized to one side of the brain or body rather than shared equally

Plasticity

the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections, adjusting existing pathways, and pruning unused ones in response to experience, learning, or injury

Motor development

the growth and control of the body's muscles, bones, and movement skills over time

Gross motor skills

involve movements of large muscle groups in the arms, legs, and torso, such as rolling, crawling, walking, running, and jumping

Fine motor skills

involve the coordination of small muscles in the hands, wrists, and fingers to make precise, controlled movements

Motor skill milestones

• Newborn to 2 months: Lifts head briefly during tummy time; moves arms and legs

• 3 to 5 months: Lifts head and chest during tummy time; rolls from belly to back

• 6 to 8 months: Sits without support; rocks on hands and knees; begins crawling

• 9 to 11 months: Pulls to a stand; cruises or walks while holding onto furniture

• 12 to 18 months: Walks independently; crawls up stairs; throws a ball

• 2 to 3 years: Runs well; kicks a ball; jumps with both feet; rides a tricycle

• 4 to 5 years: Hops on one foot; skips; catches a bounced ball; balances on one leg

Habituation paradigm

an experimental method used in developmental psychology and cognitive science to test whether pre-verbal infants or animals can discriminate between different stimuli

Depth perception

the brain's ability to see the world in three dimensions (length, width, and depth) and judge how far away objects are

Visual cliff

uses a glass-topped table with a checkerboard pattern just beneath the glass on one side and dropped lower on the other side to test infant depth perception