types of interviews

• group interviews

• structured/formal

• unstructured/informal

• semi-structured interviews

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what are 4 types of interviews

group interviews

• Most interviews are one-to-one, but some are group interviews, with up to a dozen or so people being interviewed together.

• who used group interviews as part of his research into the lads' and schooling.

• f_____ g___ are a form of group interview in which the researcher asks the group to discuss c___ t___ (such as how pupils feel about the school) and r___ their views .

group interviews

• Most interviews are one-to-one, but some are group interviews, with up to a dozen or so people being interviewed together.

• Paul Willis (1977) used group interviews as part of his research into the lads' and schooling.

• Focus groups are a form of group interview in which the researcher asks the group to discuss certain topics (such as how pupils feel about the school) and records their views.

group interviews- strengths

• ✓- Participants may feel more c____ being with o____ and thus are more likely to o___ up.

• ✓- In a discussion, how do participants stimulate each other's thinking. This produces r____ and more r____ data.

• ✓- They can be a useful way of generating i___ ideas that can be f___ up in l___ research.

• ✓- The researcher can combine questioning with the opportunity to observe what

group interviews- strengths

• ✓- Participants may feel more comfortable being with others and thus are more likely to open up.

• ✓- In a discussion, participants often throw ideas around the group, stimulating each other's thinking. This produces richer and more reflective data.

• ✓- They can be a useful way of generating initial ideas that can be followed up in later research.

• ✓- The researcher can combine questioning with the opportunity to observe group dynamics and norms.

group interviews- limitations

• ✗- One or two individuals may d____ the discussion, i____ others from c___.

• ✗- Much depends on the researcher's ability to do what

• ✗- p____ g____ p___ to conform to group n___ may lead to participants not saying what they really think.

• ✗- Data generated from group interaction is more c___ and difficult to a___.

group interviews- limitations

• ✗- One or two individuals may dominate the discussion, inhibiting others from contributing.

• ✗- Much depends on the researcher's ability to keep the group focused on the discussion topic.

• ✗- Peer group pressure to conform to group norms may lead to participants not saying what they really think.

• ✗- Data generated from group interaction is more complex and difficult to analyse.

Structured /formal interviews

• very similar to what

• the interviewer is given s____ i____ on how to ask the questions.

• The interview is conducted in the same s_____ way each time, asking each i____ precisely the same q____, w___ for w___, in the same o___, tone of v__ and so on.

Structured /formal interviews

• very similar to a questionnaire

• the interviewer is given strict instructions on how to ask the questions.

• The interview is conducted in the same standardised way each time, asking each interviewee precisely the same questions, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice and so on.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- practical issues

• ✓- why is Training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive, ✘- However, this is more costly than what other method

• ✓- Surveys that use structured interviews can cover quite l___ n__ of p___ with relatively l___ r___ because they are q___ and fairly c___ to administer ✘- However, they still cannot match the potentially huge numbers reached by what method

• ✓- Structured interviews are suitable for gathering s____ f____ information such as a person's age or job

• ✓- why are the results are easily quantified .This makes them suitable for h____ t___

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- practical issues

• ✓- Training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive, since all they are really required to do is follow a set of instructions. ✘- However, this is more costly than simply posting or emailing questionnaires to people.

• ✓- Surveys that use structured interviews can cover quite large numbers of people with relatively limited resources because they are quick and fairly cheap to administer ✘- However, they still cannot match the potentially huge numbers reached by postal questionnaires.

• ✓- Structured interviews are suitable for gathering straightforward factual information such as a person's age or job

• ✓- The results are easily quantified because they use closed-ended questions with coded answers. This makes them suitable for hypothesis testing.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- response rate

• ✓- The large numbers who can be surveyed using structured interviews increase the chances of what

• For example, of the ____ people Y___ and W____ approached for their main sample, only ___ refused to be interviewed. This may be because people find it harder to do what, and some may welcome the opportunity to t___.

• ✓- High response rates help to produce what and therefore a better basis for making g____.

• ✘- On the other hand, those with the t___ or w____ to be interviewed may be u___ (for example, they may be l____ or have t___ on their h__). If so, this will produce u____ data and undermine the v____ of any g___ made from the findings.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- response rate

• ✓- The large numbers who can be surveyed using structured interviews increase the chances of obtaining a representative sample of the population.

• For example, of the 987 people Young and Willmott approached for their main sample, only 54 refused to be interviewed. This may be because people find it harder to turn down a face-to-face request, and some may welcome the opportunity to talk.

• ✓- High response rates help to produce a more representative result and therefore a better basis for making generalisations.

• ✘- On the other hand, those with the time or willingness to be interviewed may be untypical (for example, they may be lonely or have time on their hands). If so, this will produce unrepresentative data and undermine the validity of any generalisations made from the findings

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- reliability

• If a method is reliable, another sociologist could repeat the research and get the s____ r___.

• what are structured interviews are seen as reliable

• then any other researcher following the same interview procedures should get very s____ results.

• ✓- we can c____ their answers easily to identify s____ and d____.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- reliability

• If a method is reliable, another sociologist could repeat the research and get the same results.

• Structured interviews are seen as reliable because it is easy for the researcher to standardise and control them. They can ensure that each interview is conducted in precisely the same way, with the same questions, in the same order, with the same wording and tone of voice.

• then any other researcher following the same interview procedures should get very similar results.

• ✓- we can compare their answers easily to identify similarities and differences.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- validty

• what is a vali method/what does validity means

• Critics of structured interviews argue that, like q____, they often produce a f___ p____ of the s____ they are trying to study.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- validty

• A valid method is one that provides a true, authentic picture of the topic being researched.

• Critics of structured interviews argue that, like questionnaires, they often produce a false picture of the subjects they are trying to study.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- validty

what are 3 ways interviews produce a false picture of the subjects they are trying to study.

• Structured interviews usually use closed-ended questions that restrict interviewees to choosing from a limited number of pre-set answers. If none of these answers fits what the interviewee really wishes to say, the data obtained will be invalid.

• Structured interviews give interviewers very little freedom to explain questions or clarity misunderstandings. For example, they may be given one alternative form of words to use if the interviewee doesn't understand the question, but if this fails to do the trick the interviewer usually has to move on to the next question.

• People may lie or exaggerate. These responses will produce false data.

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- validty

• The interview is a s____ i____ and so there is always a risk that the interaction between interviewer and interviewee will i___ the answers given.

• For example, g____ and e____ d____ can affect the answers, as can the interviewee's desire to be seen in a f____ light

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- validty

• The interview is a social interaction and so there is always a risk that the interaction between interviewer and interviewee will influence the answers given.

• For example, gender and ethnic differences can affect the answers, as can the interviewee's desire to be seen in a favourable light

Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- inflexibility

• structured interviews suffer from the inflexibility that comes from having to do what in advance. In doing so, the researcher has already decided what is i___ - yet this may not c____ with what the interviewee thinks is i____.

• As a result, why might the findings may lack validity . In particular, it will make it impossible to pursue any i____ l__ that emerge in the course of the interviews, thereby losing v___ i___.

• structured interviews are merely s____ taken at one moment in time, so they fail to capture the f__, d___ nature of social life - unlike what other method

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Structured /formal interviews strengths and limitations- inflexibility

• structured interviews suffer from the inflexibility that comes from having to draw up the questions in advance. In doing so, the researcher has already decided what is important - yet this may not coincide with what the interviewee thinks is important.

• As a result, the findings may lack validity because they do not reflect the interviewee's concerns and priorities. In particular, it will make it impossible to pursue any interesting leads that emerge in the course of the interviews, thereby losing valuable insights.

• structured interviews are merely snapshots taken at one moment in time, so they fail to capture the flowing, dynamic nature of social life - unlike participant observation, for example.

Structured /formal interviews - ✘-Feminist criticisms

H____ G_____ (19___) argues that survey methods such as structured interviews are p____ and give a d____, i___ picture of what. She argues that:

• The researcher, not the f___ interviewee, is in control of the interview and decides what. This mirrors what

• Surveys impose the researcher's c___ on women, making it difficult for them to express what, thus concealing the u____ p____ relationships between the sexes.

These feminist criticisms are similar to i____ sociologists, who argue that structured interviews fail to reveal what. G____ argues that sociologists need to use methods that allow whatShe therefore advocates the use of what method instead of structured interviews.

✘-Feminist criticisms

Hilary Graham (1983) argues that survey methods such as structured interviews are patriarchal and give a distorted, invalid picture of women's experience. She argues that:

• The researcher, not the female interviewee, is in control of the interview and decides the line of questioning to be followed. This mirrors women's subordination in wider society.

• Survey methods treat women as isolated individuals rather than seeing them in the context of the power relationships that oppress them.

• Surveys impose the researcher's categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their experiences of oppression, thus concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes.

These feminist criticisms are similar to interpretivist sociologists, who argue that structured interviews fail to reveal how the interviewee sees their situation. Graham argues that sociologists need to use methods that allow the researcher to understand women's behaviour, attitudes and meanings. She therefore advocates the use of direct observation instead of structured interviews.

unstructured/formal interviews

• (also called discovery interviews) are like a g____ c____.

• The interviewer has complete freedom do what , pursuing whatever line of questioning seems a____ at the time, asking f___-u___ questions or p___ more d___.

unstructured/formal interviews

• (also called discovery interviews) are like a guided conversation.

• The interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order and so on from one interview to the next, pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate at the time, asking follow-up questions or probing more deeply.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages : rapport and sensitivity

• ✓ The i____ of unstructured interviews allows the interviewer to develop a rapport (relationship of t___ and u___) with the interviewee.

• This is more likely to put the interviewee at their e____ and e__4 them to o___ u___ than what other type of method

A good example of this is the work of W__ L____ (1973) :

• When using formal, structured interviews to what , L___ found that they appeared to be u____ and r___ to respond.

• However, adopting a more relaxed, informal style - by doing what - brought a completely different response.

• The children o____ up and spoke f____, showing that they were c___ speakers.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages : rapport and sensitivity

• ✓ The informality of unstructured interviews allows the interviewer to develop a rapport (relationship of trust and understanding) with the interviewee.

• This is more likely to put the interviewee at their ease and encourage them to open up than a formal structured interview.

A good example of this is the work of William Labov (1973) :

• When using formal, structured interviews to study the language of Black American children, Labov found that they appeared to be uncomfortable and reluctant to respond.

• However, adopting a more relaxed, informal style - the interviewer sitting on the floor, the child allowed to have a friend present - brought a completely different response.

• The children opened up and spoke freely, showing that they were competent speakers.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages : the interviewee’s view

• Because there are no what, unstructured interviews allow the interviewee more opportunity to s___ about those things they think are i____.

• how does this contrast with the structured interview,

• By allowing them g___ f___ to express their views, an unstructured interview is more likely to produce what

  Similarly, the interviewer's probing can help what

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages : the interviewee’s view

• Because there are no set questions, unstructured interviews allow the interviewee more opportunity to speak about those things they think are important.

• This contrasts with the structured interview, where the researcher decides in advance what questions. are worth asking and limits interviewees to a fixed range of possible answers.

• By allowing them greater freedom to express their views, an unstructured interview is more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data.

  Similarly, the interviewer's probing can help formulate and develop interviewees' thoughts more clearly.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages : checking understanding

• In structured interviews, there is a great danger of what

• A major advantage of unstructured interviews is that m___ make it much e___ for interviewer and interviewee to check each other's meanings.

• If the interviewee doesn't understand a question, then what happens

• Similarly, if the interviewer is unsure what the interviewee's answer means, f___-u__ questions can be put to c____ matters.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages : checking understanding

• In structured interviews, there is a great danger that the interviewee misunderstands the question, or the interviewer misunderstands the answer.

• A major advantage of unstructured interviews is that they make it much easier for interviewer and interviewee to check each other's meanings.

• If the interviewee doesn't understand a question, it can be explained.

• Similarly, if the interviewer is unsure what the interviewee's answer means, follow-up questions can be put to clarity matters.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages :flexible

• Unstructured interviews are highly flexible.

• The interviewer is not r____ to a f____ s____ of questions in advance, but can explore whatever seems i___ or r____

• The researcher can f____ new i___ and h_____ and then put them to the t___ as they a____ during the course of the interview.

• There is no need to go away and draw up a new interview schedule, as there would be if using structured interviews.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages :flexible

• Unstructured interviews are highly flexible.

• The interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions in advance, but can explore whatever seems interesting or relevant.

• The researcher can formulate new ideas and hypotheses and then put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview.

• There is no need to go away and draw up a new interview schedule, as there would be if using structured interviews.

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages :exploring unfamiliar topics

• how would unstructured interviews be useful, where the subject is one that we don't know much about,

• As with an ordinary conversation, we can start out knowing n____ and, by asking questions, l___ as we go along.

• how domSome sociologists use unstructured interviews as a starting point

unstructured/formal interviews ✓- advantages :exploring unfamiliar topics

• However, where the subject is one that we don't yet know much about, unstructured interviews may be more useful, precisely because they are open-ended and exploratory.

• As with an ordinary conversation, we can start out knowing nothing and, by asking questions, learn as we go along.

• Some sociologists use unstructured interviews as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation such as questionnaires.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :practical problems

Time and sample size

• Being i___-d____ explorations, unstructured interviews take a long t___ to conduct - often s___ h___ each.

• This limits what and means that the researcher will have a relatively s___ s___ compared with the l___ numbers who can be studied using what methods

Training

• needs to be more t____ than for someone conducting structured interviews.

• why does the interviewer need a background in sociology?

• All this adds to the c___ of conducting unstructured interviews.

Interpersonal skills

• Interviewers also need good interpersonal skills so they can establish the r___ that is essential if interviewees are to answer fully and honestly.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :practical problems

Time and sample size

• Being in-depth explorations, unstructured interviews take a long time to conduct - often several hours each.

• This limits the number that can be carried out and means that the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with the larger numbers who can be studied using structured interviews or questionnaires.

Training

• needs to be more thorough than for someone conducting structured interviews. The interviewer needs to have a background in sociology so they can recognise when the interviewee has made a sociologically important point and so they can probe further All this adds to the cost of conducting unstructured interviews.

Interpersonal skills

• Interviewers also need good interpersonal skills so they can establish the rapport that is essential if interviewees are to answer fully and honestly.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :representativeness

• The smaller numbers involved mean it is more likely that the sample interviewed will not be r____.

• This means that it will be harder to do what ?

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :representativeness

• The smaller numbers involved mean it is more likely that the sample interviewed will not be representative.

• This means that it will be harder to make valid generalisations based on the findings of the interviews.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :reliability

• Unstructured interviews are not reliable because they are not s_____.

• Each interview is u____; interviewers are free to do what

• This makes it virtually impossible for another researcher to r___ the interviews and check the f___ or c____ them with their own.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :reliability

• Unstructured interviews are not reliable because they are not standardised.

• Each interview is unique; interviewers are free to ask different questions in each case if they feel It is relevant to do so.

• This makes it virtually impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check the findings or compare them with their own.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :quantification

• Because unstructured interviews use mainly what type of questions, the answers cannot be p___-c_¥_.

• This makes it very difficult to c___ up and q____ the numbers of interviewees giving this or that answer

• In turn, the lack of quantitative data makes unstructured interviews less useful for establishing c___-and-e___ relationships and hypothesis testing that p___ prefer.

unstructured/formal interviews ✘-disadvantages :quantification

• Because unstructured interviews use mainly open-ended questions, the answers cannot be pre-coded.

• This makes it very difficult to count up and quantify the numbers of interviewees giving this or that answer

• In turn, the lack of quantitative data makes unstructured interviews less useful for establishing cause-and-effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer.

Semi-structured interviews

• lies in between structured interviews and unstructured interviews

• explain what it is

• a____ q___ can be asked where the interviewer thinks it r___

• For example, A____ C____ and J___ K____ (1963) always followed up their questions with what as a way of gaining more information.

  
  

Semi-structured interviews

• lies in between structured interviews and unstructured interviews

• Each interview has the same set of questions in common, but the interviewer can also probe for more information.

• Additional questions can be asked where the interviewer thinks it relevant.

• For example, Aaron Cicourel and John Kitsuse (1963) always followed up their questions with 'How do you mean?' as a way of gaining more information.