Psychology midterm CH: 1-5

Development

The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues throughout the life span.

Lifespan perspective

The view that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.

Lifelong development

The idea that development continues throughout the entire life span.

Multidimensional development

The idea that development involves physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.

Multidirectional development

The idea that development includes both gains and losses and that different abilities can change in different directions.

Plasticity

The capacity for change in response to experience.

Context

The setting or circumstances in which development occurs.

Culture

The patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values shared by a group of people.

Cohort

A group of people born during the same period who share similar historical experiences.

Physical domain

Changes in the body, brain, sensory abilities, motor skills, and physical health.

Cognitive domain

Changes in thinking, intelligence, language, memory, and other mental abilities.

Psychosocial domain

Changes in emotions, personality, relationships, and social interactions.

Nature-nurture issue

The debate over how much development is influenced by genetic factors versus environmental experiences.

Continuity-discontinuity issue

The debate over whether development occurs gradually and continuously or in distinct stages.

Stability-change issue

The debate over whether people remain consistent over time or change as they develop.

Critical period

A specific time when a particular developmental event must occur for normal development to take place.

Sensitive period

A time when a person is especially responsive to certain experiences, although the experience can still have effects outside that period.

Differential susceptibility

The idea that some people are more affected by both positive and negative environmental experiences than others.

Developmental theory

A set of ideas that describes and explains patterns of development and helps generate hypotheses for research.

Freud's psychodynamic theory

The theory that development is influenced by unconscious motives and conflicts, especially those involving early experiences.

Erikson's psychosocial theory

The theory that development occurs through a series of psychosocial stages involving conflicts that must be resolved.

Behaviorism

The theory that development is shaped by environmental influences and learned behaviors.

Social learning theory

The theory that people learn behaviors by observing and imitating others as well as through reinforcement and punishment.

Piaget's cognitive-developmental theory

The theory that children actively construct knowledge as they move through stages of cognitive development.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

The theory that development is strongly influenced by social interaction, culture, and guidance from more knowledgeable people.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory

The theory that development is influenced by multiple levels of environmental context surrounding the individual.

Evolutionary theory

The view that behaviors and characteristics develop partly because they helped humans survive and reproduce.

Scientific method

A systematic process used to ask questions, form hypotheses, collect evidence, and evaluate explanations.

Theory

A set of logically related concepts that explains a broad pattern of behavior or development.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction based on a theory.

Descriptive research

Research designed to observe and describe behavior without determining cause and effect.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables that does not by itself show that one variable causes the other.

Positive correlation

A relationship in which two variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

A relationship in which one variable increases while the other decreases.

Curvilinear relationship

A relationship in which the pattern between two variables changes direction rather than forming a straight line.

Correlation does not equal causation

The principle that finding a relationship between two variables does not prove that one variable causes the other.

Experiment

A research method in which researchers manipulate one variable to determine whether it causes a change in another variable.

Independent variable

The variable that a researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured to determine whether it was affected by the independent variable.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment and is used for comparison.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or condition being tested.

Longitudinal research

A research design that follows the same individuals over a period of time.

Cross-sectional research

A research design that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Sequential research

A research design that combines aspects of longitudinal and cross-sectional research.

Advantage of longitudinal research

It allows researchers to examine individual change over time.

Disadvantage of longitudinal research

It can be expensive and time-consuming, and participants may drop out over time.

Advantage of cross-sectional research

It is faster and less expensive than following people over many years.

Disadvantage of cross-sectional research

Age differences may reflect differences between cohorts rather than developmental change.

Advantage of sequential research

It helps researchers separate age-related changes from cohort effects.

Heredity

The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring.

Genetics

The study of heredity and how traits are passed from parents to offspring.

DNA

The molecule that contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of an organism.

Chromosome

A structure made of DNA that contains genes.

Gene

A segment of DNA that contains instructions for a particular characteristic or function.

Genome

The complete set of genetic material in an organism.

Genotype

A person's genetic makeup.

Phenotype

A person's observable characteristics, which result from genetic and environmental influences.

Allele

One of two or more versions of a gene.

Dominant allele

An allele that is expressed when at least one copy is present.

Recessive allele

An allele that is expressed only when two copies are present.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a particular gene.

Mutation

A change in DNA that can alter genetic information.

Polygenic inheritance

A pattern in which multiple genes contribute to one characteristic.

Incomplete dominance

A pattern of inheritance in which neither allele completely dominates the other, resulting in an intermediate phenotype.

Behavioral genetics

The study of how genetic and environmental factors influence behavior and development.

Heritability

An estimate of how much variation in a characteristic within a population is associated with genetic differences.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression that can occur without changing the DNA sequence itself.

Multifactorial transmission

The idea that traits are influenced by many genes as well as environmental factors.

Twin studies

Studies that compare twins to help researchers examine genetic and environmental influences on development.

Zygote

The single cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

Prenatal development

Development that occurs from conception until birth.

Germinal period

The first two weeks after conception, when the zygote divides and implants in the uterine wall.

Implantation

The process in which the developing organism attaches to the wall of the uterus.

Embryonic period

The period from about the third through the eighth week after conception, when major organs and body structures begin to form.

Fetal period

The period from about the ninth week after conception until birth, when the body grows and organs continue to mature.

Organogenesis

The formation of the major organs during the embryonic period.

Ectoderm

The outer embryonic layer that develops into structures such as the nervous system and skin.

Mesoderm

The middle embryonic layer that develops into structures such as muscles, bones, blood, and the circulatory system.

Endoderm

The inner embryonic layer that develops into structures such as the digestive and respiratory systems.

Amnion

A fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the developing organism.

Chorion

The outer membrane that surrounds the developing organism and contributes to the formation of the placenta.

Placenta

An organ that allows nutrients and oxygen to pass from the mother to the developing organism and removes waste products.

Umbilical cord

The structure connecting the developing organism to the placenta that carries nutrients and oxygen and removes waste.

Teratogen

An environmental substance or condition that can harm prenatal development.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)

A group of physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems that can result from prenatal alcohol exposure.

Maternal nutrition

The mother's nutritional status during pregnancy, which can affect fetal growth and development.

Prenatal care

Medical care provided during pregnancy to monitor the health of the mother and developing organism.

Ultrasound

A prenatal imaging technique that uses sound waves to create an image of the developing fetus.

Amniocentesis

A prenatal test in which a sample of amniotic fluid is removed and analyzed for genetic or developmental problems.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

A prenatal test that examines cells from the chorionic villi to identify certain genetic conditions.

Miscarriage

The spontaneous loss of a pregnancy before the fetus is able to survive outside the uterus.

Infertility

The inability to become pregnant after attempting to conceive for an extended period.

Ectopic pregnancy

A pregnancy in which the fertilized egg implants somewhere outside the uterus, most often in a fallopian tube.

Preeclampsia

A pregnancy complication involving high blood pressure and other signs that can threaten the health of the mother and fetus.

Eclampsia

A severe complication of preeclampsia involving seizures.

Preterm birth

Birth that occurs before 37 completed weeks of pregnancy.

Low birth weight

A birth weight below 5.5 pounds, or about 2,500 grams.

Labor

The process through which the uterus contracts and the baby is delivered.

First stage of labor

The stage in which contractions begin and the cervix dilates.