Instrumental Conditioning

Instrumental conditioning

the learning of a contingency between a voluntary behaviour and a consequence

law of effect (thorndike)

behaviours with positive consequences are stamped in, those with negative consequences are stamped out (performed less frequently)

Reinforcer

any stimulus that is presented after a response that impacts the frequency that the response is performed

Reward training

the presentation of a positive reinforcer following a response; increases the frequency of the behaviour

Punishment training

the presentation of a negative reinforcer following a response, which decreases the frequency of the behaviour

omission training

the removal of a positive reinforcer following a response, which decreases the frequency of the behaviour

escape training

the removal of a negative reinforcer following a response, which decreases the frequency of the behaviour

Autoshaping

allowing the one subjected to the conditioning to learn the contingency without careful guidance

shaping by successive approximations

organizing complex behaviours into smaller approximations which gradually build up the full response and is reinforced through the presentation of a reward: reinforced on the basis of improvement

Chaining

a technique used to develop a sequence of behaviours; each behaviour is reinforced with the opportunity to perform the next behaviour in a sequence, which can be used to produce even more complex behaviours

Discriminaive stimulus (SD or S+)

signals when a contingency between a particular behaviour and reinforcement is on

S-delta (S-)

indicates when a contingency is not valid

SD generalization gradient

displays the range of response to stimulus similar to the SD

Stimulus discrimination

When SD and S-delta are in the same modality, introduction of training with an S-delta leads to fine tuning of behaviour that is more sharply directed to the SD

Continuous reinforcement

a reponse leads to a reinforcer on every single trial

partical reinforcement

reinforcement delivery determined by either total responses or time

Ratio schedule of reinforcement

based on the number of responses made by a subject, which determines when reinforcement is given

interval schedule of reinforcement

based on the number of responses made by a subject, which determines when reinforcement is given

Interval schedule of reinforcement

based on the time since the last response was reinforced

fixed

constant conditions

variable

random conditions but averages out to the specific value given

ratio strain

if a fixed ratio schedule is stingy, the subject will stop responding

fixed ratio

displays a characteristic type of cumulative record called a pause and run pattern

variable ratio

reinforcement is delivered after some random number of responses around a characteristic mean

fixed interval

reinforcement is delivered following the first response after a set interval of time, producing a cumulative record with a scallop pattern; the individual doesn't want to miss the reinforcement window, but there's no direct reinforcement for responding well beforehand

variable interval

a reinforcement at any time, though the subject does have an idea of how often reinforcement is likely to come up

extinction

the stopping of a desired behaviour once the reinforcement is no longer given

primary reinforcers

satisfy biological need; has instrinsic values such as food, water or a mate

secondary reinforcers

established through classical conditioning; a reinforcer that can be exchanged for a primary reinforcer (ex. money is most commonly used for humans)

Nature vs nurture

1. biological predisposition to learn through modeling behaviours

2. bandura's research reveals learning through observation

3. watching other results in cultural transmission

learning is important for anticipating events in our world

1. We learn to associate relationships between Stimuli, behaviour and consequences

2. Adaptive functions of learning are embedded in biology and refined by environmental in put

3. We can learn explicitly and implicitly

Operant chamber (skinner box)

a special chamber with a lever or other mechanism by which an animal could respond to produce a reinforcer

Cumulative recorder

records the cumulative response rate during an instrumental conditioning experiment

descriminative stimuli

a signal to the organism when a given response-reinforcer relationship is valid ; can indicate eitherthe presence (St) or absence (S-) of the relationship

shaping

used when a desired behaviour is too complex for a subject to discover on their own single step; the behaviour is broken down into simpler steps which leads to more complex behaviour

Contrast effects

changes in the value of an award leads to shifts in response rate

negative contrast

when a response originally receiving a high reward is shifted to a lower reward,resulting in reduced responding

positive contrast

when a response originally receives a low reward is shifted to a higher reward; increases responding

What is the overjustification effect?

A phenomenon where a newly introduced reward for a previously unrewarded task alters an individual's perception of that task.

How does the overjustification effect change the perception of a task?

A task that was previously regarded as having intrinsic value is now viewed as work with extrinsic value.

What happens to intrinsic motivation due to the overjustification effect?

It can diminish as the task is seen as undertaken only for external rewards.

continuous reinforcement (CRF)

a reinforcer follows every correct response made by the individual

partial reinforcement (PRF)

The reinforcer follows only some of the responses.

fixed schedule

the number of responses required, or the time that must pass is always the same

variable schedule

the number of responses or interval of time before a reinforcer is randomly within arange around a set mean

post-reinforcement pause

a period where the oganism momentarily stops responding before staring up again; occurs after reinforcement on a fixed ratio schedule

ratio schedule

based on the number of responses made

interval schedule

based on thetime elapsed since the last reinforcer was delivered (when a response is made)

fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement after a fixed number of responses

ratio strain

as the number of responses required for reward increases the post-reinforcement pause tends to get longer; ifthe required responses continue to increase the organism will eventually reach break point and stop responding completely

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

reinforcement follows after a variable number of responses have been completed; the average number ofc responses required characterizes a particular VR schedule

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)

the first correct response that occurs after a fixed interval of time is reinforced

variable interval schedule

reinforcement allows the first correct response to occur after a variable interval of time has passed; the avergae time required characterizes a particular VI schedule

mirror neuron

a cell that responds in the same way when performing an action as it does when the organism possessing the cell observes someone else perform the action or even imagines performing the action, believed toplay a key role in observational learning

overjustification effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

observational learning

learning by observing others

What is Watson's view on nature vs. nurture?

Nurture over nature; the environment is more important in influencing children.

What is a key concept of Watson's theory regarding learning?

Biological affinity to learning by modeling behaviors.

Give an example of cultural information transmission observed in monkeys.

Japanese monkeys washing potatoes in the ocean to clean and add salty flavor.

What happened to the behavior of washing potatoes among the Japanese monkeys?

Other monkeys watched and engaged in the same behavior, but it did not pass on to the next generation.