Chapter 10: The Reformation

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, based on primary and secondary sources in Marvin Perry's Western Tradition.

Martin Luther and the Wittenberg Reformers (c. 1543)

A painting by Lucas Cranach, the Elder depicting Martin Luther on the left, his protector Frederick of Saxony dominating the center, and the Swiss reformer Huldreich Zwingli to the right of Frederick.

John Wycliffe

English theologian (c. 1320–1384) who attacked clerical political power, urged a return to early apostolic practices, upheld the Bible as the supreme authority, promoted vernacular scripture, and denied the sacerdotal power of priests to change bread and wine into Christ's body and blood.

John Huss

Czech theologian (c. 1369–1415) who attacked the hierarchy's temporal political entanglements, championed the Bible as the ultimate authority, and advocated preaching in the common vernacular, though he did not deny the transubstantiation of the bread and wine during Mass.

Conciliar Movement

A fourteenth- and fifteenth-century institutional reform effort that sought to curb papal supremacy by establishing regular general councils of bishops as the supreme governing authority within the church.

Council of Constance (1414–1418)

General church council that declared an ecumenical general council, rather than the papacy, to be the supreme authority within the church and called for regular assemblies of bishops to implement necessary reforms.

Fifth Lateran Council (1512–1517)

Papal-supervised assembly convoked in Rome that issued reform decrees aimed at improving clerical education, curbing administrative abuses, and holding councils every five years, though its decrees were never executed.

New Devotion (devotio moderna)

Late medieval orthodox spiritual movement originating in the Netherlands that promoted intense personal spirituality, communal lay religious life, vernacular scripture schooling, and living in perfect imitation of Christ.

Gerard Groote (1340–1384)

Dutch priest whose preaching founded the New Devotion (devotio moderna), inspiring religious orders, lay communities, and vernacular Christian schooling across the Netherlands, Germany, and Spain.

Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536)

Dutch priest and foremost Christian humanist scholar who advocated a simpler Christ-centered faith, purified Latin and Greek biblical texts, criticized monastic abuses and scholastic quibbles, but defended free will and remained loyal to the Catholic Church hierarchy.

Indulgence

A mitigation or remission of temporal penance granted by papal decree to a repentant sinner for performing acts of piety, charity, prayer, or alms-giving, controversially marketed in 1515 to finance the rebuilding of St. Peter's basilica in Rome.

Three Walls of the Romanists

Luther's term in 1520 for three papal defensive claims preventing ecclesiastical reform: (1) spiritual power is above temporal power, (2) only the pope may interpret Holy Scripture, and (3) only the pope has the authority to summon a church council.

Justification by Faith

Core Protestant doctrine formulated by Martin Luther stating that salvation cannot be merited by good works, rituals, or ceremonies, but is received purely as an unearned free gift from God through faith in Jesus Christ alone.

The Freedom of a Christian (1520)

Treatise written by Martin Luther outlining his theological teaching that the inner soul is justified solely by faith in the Word of God, rendering external works ineffective for achieving salvation.

Priesthood of All Believers

Lutheran doctrine declaring that through baptism every Christian is consecrated as a spiritual priest before God, denying that ordained Catholic clergy possess any superior spiritual authority or separate sacerdotal estate.

The Twelve Articles (1524)

Manifesto drawn up by Swabian peasant leaders articulating social, economic, and religious grievances, including demands to choose their own pastors, abolish serfdom, end unfair death taxes, and reclaim communal lands.

Heriot

A traditional death tax imposed on peasant estates by manorial lords, which the Swabian peasants sought to abolish completely in the Eleventh Article of the Twelve Articles to protect widows and orphans.

Against the Thievish, Murderous Hordes of Peasants (1525)

Pamphlet by Martin Luther violently condemning the German Peasants' Revolt, asserting that worldly rebellion contradicts the Gospel and urging princes to slay rebels without mercy as servants of divine wrath.

That Jesus Was Born a Jew (1523)

Early treatise by Martin Luther expressing sympathy for Jewish hardships, condemning historic persecutions, and encouraging friendly treatment and scriptural instruction to foster conversion.

On the Jews and Their Lies (1543)

Late treatise by Martin Luther that accepted medieval anti-Jewish slanders and urged authorities to burn synagogues, destroy homes, seize religious texts, forbid rabbis from teaching, confiscate money, and force young Jews into hard labor.

Anabaptists

Radical Reformation adherents who rejected infant baptism in favor of voluntary adult baptism, advocated strict separation of church and state, and largely espoused absolute nonviolence.

Conrad Grebel (c. 1500–1526)

Reformer in Zurich who split with Ulrich Zwingli over infant baptism and church subservience to civic magistrates, becoming a foundational leader of the Swiss Anabaptist movement.

Münster Sect (1535)

Radical faction of Anabaptists who seized civic control in northwestern Germany, practiced polygamy and communal property, and used armed force under apocalyptic prophets until being crushed by regional princes.

Menno Simons (c. 1496–1561)

Dutch Catholic priest who converted to Anabaptism, founded the Mennonites, and wrote theological defenses strictly rejecting the use of the sword, worldly power, or state coercion in matters of spiritual conscience.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

Foundational theological compendium written by John Calvin in Basel and revised across four editions, serving as the definitive doctrinal blueprint for French, Scottish, Dutch, and English Protestant reformers.

Predestination (Calvinism)

The doctrine asserting that God by sovereign, eternal decree has foreordained each individual human soul either to eternal salvation (the elect) or to eternal damnation, independent of human merit or choice.

Consistory

Governing body in Calvinist Geneva composed of pastors and lay elders meeting every Thursday to supervise public morality, reprove offenders, and refer unrepentant sinners to civil magistrates for punishment.

Commentaries on the Book of the Prophet Daniel (1561)

Work by John Calvin justifying Christian civil disobedience and potential political rebellion against secular rulers who usurp divine rights and demand defiance of God's laws.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

Catholic religious order founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola and approved by the papacy in 1540, distinguished by an oath of absolute papal obedience, active service in the world, elite schools, and missionary work.

Saint Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556)

Basque nobleman, former soldier, and founder of the Society of Jesus who developed systematic meditative spiritual exercises designed to foster absolute devotion and discipline within the Catholic Church.

The Spiritual Exercises

Manual written by Saint Ignatius Loyola between 1521 and 1535 containing a practical framework of meditations, spiritual disciplines, and rules for aligning one's mind obediently with the hierarchical Catholic Church.

Council of Trent (1545–1563)

General ecumenical council convoked by the Catholic Church in an Alpine border city to counter Protestant doctrines, reaffirm traditional dogmas, and establish strict standards for clerical discipline and education.

Justification (Council of Trent)

Catholic doctrine established at Trent asserting that salvation requires both divine predisposing grace and human cooperation, integrating faith, hope, and charity, and manifesting through good works.

Vulgate Edition

The traditional Latin translation of the Holy Scriptures reaffirmed by the Council of Trent as the sole authoritative text to be printed and used without doctrinal deviation.

Sacraments of the New Law

The seven sacramental rites established by Jesus Christ and reaffirmed dogmatically by the Council of Trent: baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order, and matrimony.

Sacrament of Order

Catholic sacrament reaffirmed by the Council of Trent that imprints an indelible spiritual character upon ordained priests and establishes a divinely ordained hierarchy of bishops, priests, and ministers superior to the laity.