POSC010 Midterm Study Guide

What is Politics?

process of making collective decisions about who gets what, when, and how.

Why are preferences an issue in politics?

different interests and opinions;hard to satisfy everyone.

What is a collective action problem?

Individuals having difficulty working together toward a shared goal due to conflicting incentives or free-riding.

What is a state?

political organization that controls a territory and population through institutions and claims authority

What is a government?

The institutions and people responsible for making, enforcing, and interpreting laws and public policies.

Why are elections necessary, but not sufficient for democracy?

They allow choosing leaders, but democracy also requires political rights, civil liberties, and fair competition.

Difference between direct and representative democracy

Direct: citizens vote on policies. Representative: citizens elect representatives to decide for them.

Prospective vs. retrospective voting

Prospective: voting based on future promises. Retrospective: voting based on past performance.

What is a delegate model?

Representatives vote according to the preferences and wishes of their constituents.

What is a trustee model?

Representatives use their own judgment and expertise to make decisions they believe are best.

Difference between delegate and trustee models

Delegate follows constituent preferences; trustee uses personal judgment.

Structure of the colonial government

Generally had a governor, council, and elected assembly under British control.

Who could vote in the colonies?

Generally white men who met property or taxpaying requirements.

War that left Britain in massive debt

The French and Indian War (1754-1763), part of the Seven Years' War.

Act that gave way to 'no taxation without representation'

The Stamp Act of 1765.

Acts that closed the Boston harbor

The Boston Port Act of 1774, one of the Coercive/Intolerable Acts.

Ideology that led to the colonists' revolt

Republicanism and Enlightenment ideas like natural rights and consent of the governed.

Interests that led to the colonists' revolt

Economic interests, property, trade, political autonomy, and resisting taxation without representation.

Institutions that led to the colonists' revolt

British Parliament and Crown imposed taxes while colonial assemblies lacked imperial representation.

What did the First Continental Congress do?

Met in 1774 to coordinate resistance, boycott British goods, and petition the king.

What did the Second Continental Congress do?

Met in 1775, managed the Revolutionary War, and adopted the Declaration of Independence.

General structure of the Articles of Confederation

A weak national government with a one-house Congress and no separate executive or judiciary.

Why did the Articles of Confederation fail?

National government could not directly tax citizens, regulate commerce, or enforce decisions.

What was Shays's Rebellion?

A 1786-1787 farmer uprising in Massachusetts that exposed weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

What was the Convention in 1787?

The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia aimed to revise the Articles but created a new Constitution.

Main focus of the Virginia Plan

A strong national government with three branches and a bicameral legislature based on population.

Main focus of the New Jersey Plan

Preserving equal state representation in a unicameral legislature while strengthening national powers.

What was the Connecticut Compromise?

Created a bicameral Congress with population-based House representation and equal Senate representation.

Two major debates during the Constitutional Convention

Representation (population vs. equal) and slavery (counting and taxation).

Three branches of government

Legislative (Congress), executive (president), and judicial (federal courts).

Article I

Congress

Difference between a federalist and an anti-federalist

Federalists supported a stronger national government; anti-federalists feared it and pushed for a Bill of Rights.

Unitary vs. confederal systems

Unitary: national government holds ultimate authority; strong central govt. Confederal: states/regions hold most power.

What is dual federalism?

National and state governments operate in separate, distinct areas ('layer cake federalism').

What is shared federalism?

National and state governments share responsibilities ('marble cake federalism').

What is nationalization?

Politics becoming increasingly focused on national issues, parties, and elections.

Why did American politics nationalize?

Due to national media, strong parties, federal expansion, and national policy issues.

What is reapportionment?

Redistributing House seats among states after each decennial census based on population. (every 10 yrs)

Three redistricting criteria

Equal population, contiguity, and compactness. (PARTISAN BALANCE DOESNT HAVE TO BE PART OF)

What is gerrymandering?

Drawing electoral district boundaries to give a political group an unfair advantage.

What was the Voting Rights Act of 1965?

A federal law eliminating racial discrimination in voting.

Section of VRA struck down by Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

Section 5, disabling the coverage formula for federal preclearance, got rid of racial gerrymandering

VRA ruling in Louisiana v. Callais (2026)

Limited Section 2 application, ruling race-based congressional districting unjustified there, prove that they’re racially gerrymandering

What is the incumbency advantage?

Officeholders' advantage due to name recognition, fundraising, and constituent services.

What is the Mayhew electoral connection?

Theory that single-minded members of Congress are motivated by reelection through advertising, credit claiming, and position taking.

What is Fenno's paradox?

Voters disapprove of Congress as a whole but approve of their own representative.

What are the three types of congressional committees?

Standing (permanent committee ex. ways and means), select (focus on temporary issues), and joint (comes together) committees (plus conference committees).

What do committees do?

Review bills, hold hearings, investigate issues, and amend legislation.

What do political parties in Congress do?

Organize members, coordinate agendas, select leaders, and build coalitions.

Different types of leaders in Congress

Speaker, majority/minority leaders, and whips in the House and Senate.

Why organize Congress this way?

To divide labor, coordinate members, manage debate, and make lawmaking efficient.

What is distributive theory?

Committees help members obtain district benefits in exchange for supporting others' priorities; they serve constituent interests

What is partisan theory?

Committees help the majority party advance its policy goals and agenda control. (more like serving the party)

What is informational theory?

Committees develop expertise to help the legislature make informed decisions for the chamber.

Difference between lawmaking in the Senate vs. House

House has stricter rules and limits (more majoritiarian and tight rules ex. 5 mins only or u get cut off) ; Senate allows extended debate and filibusters.

Five steps to making a bill a law

Introduction, committee consideration, floor consideration, other chamber review, and presidential action. (committee, rules, floor, senate, sign; if veto, goes to floor)

What is unorthodox lawmaking?

Procedures departing from traditional processes, such as omnibus bills or reconciliation. (written by leader, not committee as a whole)

Two ways states count votes

Plurality rule (most votes win) and majority rule (over 50% needed).

Example and explanation of a Condorcet paradox

Majority preferences cycle with no clear winner (e.g., A beats B, B beats C, C beats A).

What is a Condorcet winner?

An option that defeats every other option in one-on-one majority votes.

What do presidents want?

To win reelection, maintain approval, advance policy agendas, and build a political legacy.

Three types of presidential constituencies

General public, partisan base, and party/political allies.

How were presidents elected in the past?

Electors cast two votes without separate VP designation; runner-up became VP.

How do we elect presidents now?

State popular votes determine electors; a majority of 270 out of 538 electoral votes is needed.

Structure of the electoral college

538 total votes (435 House, 100 Senate, 3 DC); mostly winner-take-all by state.

What is the electoral college in theory?

A system balancing state representation and popular voting to formally choose the president.

What do swing states get?

Disproportionate campaign attention, candidate visits, and advertising due to being competitive. more money

Article I of Constituion

Congress

Article II of constitution

Presidency (executive)

Article III of constitution

Judiciary lower courth (judges)

Article IV of constitution

States

Article V of constitution

Amendments

Filibuster

Procedure to block out or delay voting

What clause lets congress act beyond enumerated powers

Necessary and proper clause (article I, section 8, clause 18 of constitution

townshend act

tax on goods including glass, lead, paint, paper, tea

Mayhew’s strat of reelection

position taking, advertise, credit claim

Fenno

geographic, primary, personal