Exam 3 Biodiversity

What are the seven major threats to biodiversity?

1. Habitat destruction

2. Habitat fragmentation

3. habitat degradation (includes pollution)

4. Global climate change

5. overexploitation of species for human use

6. Invasion of exotic species

7. Increased spread of disease

These are caused by human activity.

What are some of the human activities that results in threats caused to biodiversity?

• agriculture

• logging

• fisheries

• industries and fossil fuel use

• urbanization and road construction

• international trade

What are some results from the major threats to biodiversity?

• extinction of species and populations

• degradation of ecosystems

• erosion of genetic diversity and evolutionary potential

• loss of ecosystem services

• erosion of support systems for human societies

Intrinsic

aspects of various species in biology such as behavior

Habitat destruction

large scale clearing of land- has already occurred at an unprecedented rate

What are some examples of Habitat destruction in the tropical forest?

• tropical moist forests occupy 7% of the Earth’s surface

• Tropical moist forests are home to less than 50% of the Earth’s species

• about 40% of the tropical rain forests are in the brazilian Amazon

• little tropical rain forests will remain in 2050 of new government policies are not created and stricter enforcement of logging regulations are not maintained.

(Table 9.1) What are three ways that humans dominate the global ecosystem?

1. Land Surface - human resource needs and land use (like agricultural and forestry) have changed half of the Earth’s ice-free land surface.

2. Nitrogen Cycle - Human activities like cultivating nitrogen-fixing crops, using nitrogen fertilizers, and burning fossil fuels, tend to release more nitrogen into terrestrial systems than added by natural biological and physical processes.

3. Human use of fossil fuels and deforestation - Human use of fossil fuels and cutting down forests will have resulted in the doubling of the level of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere.

The most destruction has occurred in the last ______ years as the population has increased from 1 billion to _____ billion.

1. 164

2. 8.4

globalization

the increasing interconnectedness of natural resources and labor markets.

ecological footprint

the influence of a group of people on the surrounding environment and locations across the globe.

What is an example of globalization and ecological footprint?

you sit down for a meal of fish and salad. For dessert, you have coffee and chocolate cake.

The fish were harvested in Alaska. The overharvesting results in the decline of sea lions, seals, and sea otters. The decline is sea otters result in sea urchin population explosion which results in destruction of kelp beds.

The chocolate cake and coffee come from Theobroma cacao and Coffea arabica, which were grown in rainforests in Brazil.

Basically, getting anything not locally sourced (using heavy exportation for those overconsumed products).

(Figure 9.3) In terms of mammals (like the rhino), what is three of the greatest threats for them?

1. Habitat loss and degradation

2. overexploitation

3. Intrinsic factors

(Figure 9.3) In terms of Birds, what is three of the greatest threats for them?

1. Habitat loss and degradation

2. Overexploitation

3. invasive species

(Figure 9.3) In terms of amphibians (like frogs), what is three of the greatest threats for them?

1. Habitat loss and degradation

2. Pollution

3. Intrinsic Factor

Gymnosperms

a group of woody, seed-producing plants whose seeds are not enclosed in a fruit or ovary, meaning they have "naked seeds" exposed on the surface of scales, leaves, or cones

(Figure 9.3) In terms of Gymnosperm (like pine trees), what is three of the greatest threats for them?

1. Habitat loss and degradation

2. Intrinsic factor

3. overexploitation

What are some examples of the displacement of rainforests for agricultural purposes?

• Some farmers (like in LAOS) use the technique of shifting cultivation, slash-and -burn agriculture, and swidden agriculture.

• clearing land for small scale crop development in Indonesia.

• Clearing rainforests in Malaysia for monocrop culture (Oil Palm plantations)

What is the technique of slash-and-burn?

It is about cutting and burning, then planting crops until the soil is no longer fertile. Then the field is abandoned and new patches are cut and burned.

What is monoculture?

the practice of growing just one single crop, plant, or animal species over a large area of land at one time

What are some crops in high demand that are used in monocropping the tropical rainforest (which causes habitat destruction)?

• coffee beans

• palm oil

• chocolate (coca beans)

• soy beans

• steak

• citrus

• rubber

• Wood

What are some examples of the animals that endure habitat destruction in indonesian Borneo and sumatra in southeast asia due to palm oil?

• Orangutan (their homes were torn down)-

• Sumatran Rhino (population 170-230)

• Sumatran Tiger (population less than 500)

• Proboscis monkey

• Clouded Leopard

• Sun bear

• flat-headed cat

• bay cat

• malayan Tapir

• Asian elephant

• Lac Gibbon

• Fishing cat

Why was 42% of Indonesian Borneo and Sumatra in Southeast Asia lowland forest cleared between 1990-2005?

Mostly for cash crops like Palm Oil.

What are two ways that banning palm oil could go wrong?

1. producers aim to find other customers and lower their prices. Due to the lower prices, the demand will increase in the market. Therefore, the incentive to produce environmentally sustainable palm oil is reduced.

2. Companies begin to buy alternative oils. This causes other oils to be used up to about 9x the regular amount. This increases the natural habitat loss and other impacts.

What are some attainable goals for decreasing the destruction ?

• increase the reliance on locally grown resources that are purchased in season.

• Increase individua/ home gardens.

• Increase the methods of sustainable development

• Increase incentives to create polycultures instead of monocultures!

• Reduce reliance on meat and meat products.

Besides the rainforests, what are some other threatened habitats?

• tropical deciduous forests

• Grasslands

• Wetlands

• mangroves

• coral reefs

• 
  

What are the tropical deciduous forests?

• regions with heavy rainfall for part of the year followed by a dry season

• These forests are dense and lush during the wet summers, but dry during dry winters (when most trees have shed their leaves)

Why are tropical deciduous forests so appealing as areas for development?

• the land is more suitable for agriculture and cattle ranching

• the lands is easier to clear and burn

• Human population density is greater compared to rainforests.

What is an example of an animal that is affected by the destruction of the tropical deciduous forest?

The indri lemur, Its a lineage of primates found only on the large island of madagascar (an endemic species)

What are grasslands?

• areas where vegetation is dominated by grasses. (other families of plants can be found )

• This typically occurs on all continents except Antarctica.

• They’re mostly destroyed by human activity

• 98% of North American grasslands have been converted to farmland. Only 4% is protected world wide

• Temperate grasslands are easily converted to farmland and cattle ranches

What are the classifying words of grasses, sedge, and rush?

Poaceae

Cyperaceae

Juncaceae

What are wetlands?

a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen- free processes prevail.

What are some examples of wetlands?

marsh, swamp, bog, fen, mangrove

Why are wetlands important?

• its a habitats for fish, aquatic vertebrates, birds, and reptiles.

• it helps with flood control,

• It provides drinking water,

• It helps with power production

• its a carbon sink (it absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere)

Why are wetlands appealing for development?

• they can be filled in or drained

• they can be altered with channels for shipping goods

• They are in areas of high human density

What are some stats about wetlands?

• over the last 200 years, more than half of the wetlands in the US has been destroyed. Only 42% of the wetlands are still maintained in the US

• More than 97% of the vernal pools in San Diego Country has been destroyed

• In Europe, 60-70% of wetlands has been lost

What are mangroves?

a group of trees and shrubs that live in the coastal intertidal zone.

• there’s about 80 different species of mangrove trees.

  • All of the trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate and have brackish to saline water.​

Why are mangroves important?

• its a habitat for fish, aquatic vertebrates, birds, reptiles, and manatees

• Its a important breeding ground for shrimp and fish

• provides flood protection from tsunamis

• a carbon sink

Why are wetlands appealing for development?

• they can be converted for rice cultivation

• they can be developed into shrimp and prawn hatcheries

• they’re in areas of high human density and humans overharvest their wood

What are coral reefs?

an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals formed from colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate.

• they’re rich with species of fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates cnidarians, sea turtles, and sharks.

why are coral reefs important?

• they’re home to 1/3rd of the oceans fish

• its an important feeding ground with many invertebrates and vertebrates.

• Its a carbon sink

Why are coral being destroyed or degraded?

• they’re being destroyed by explosives during the overfishing and overharvesting practices

• Zooxanthellae can’t withstand warmer water temps associated with global warming.

What are some effects of habitat destruction and degradation in terms of the coral reefs?

• 20% of coral reefs have already been destroyed

• 90% of reefs are dead or actively dying in the philippines

• There’s a loss of many species

• there’s a breakdown of the food webs

What are some causes to destruction and degradation?

• overfishing

• overharvesting (blasting with dynamite releases cyanide) for food and the aquarium trade

• pollution

• introduction of invasive species

• coastal developing

• global climate change (like warming of the ocean waters, acidification, increased intensity of tropical storms)

Desertification

seasonally dry/ semiarid(receive light rainfall for the whole year) climates and communities that are susceptible to human destruction and degradation including grasslands, shrub lands, and deciduous forests are turned into full-blown deserts when human populations grow and people and domesticated animals move into the drylands.

What are some examples of Habitat destruction?

• clear cutting and/or burning of rainforests and temperatures deciduous forests for crops

• blasting coral reefs with dynamite

Habitat Fragmentation

the process whereby a large, continuous area of habitat is both reduced in area and divided into two or more fragments. Part of the habitat is destroyed but a patchwork of habitat fragments are left behind

edge effect (habitat fragmentation)

the edges of the fragmented land experience a severely altered set of conditions making reproduction within and adaptation to the new environment extremely difficult

What product was the cause of habitat destruction and fragmentation in the indonesian island of Sumatra over the last 100 years?

palm oil

What are some ways that habitat fragmentation effect populations?

• limits dispersal and colonization

  • many birds, mammals, and insects will not cross open spaces. If they do, then they would be more susceptible to predators (like lawks, owls, cats). Animals attempting to cross roads also often die from motorized vehicles

• Division of populations

  • fragmentation breaks up areas into smaller areas. A species can be divided and become more vulnerable to inbreeding

• Restricted access to food and mates

  • Gibbons find food through the canopy. Fragmentation breaks up their areas to forage

  • Fences can prevent migration patterns of wildebeest and bison

  • Plants may produce less seeds if butterflies and bees are less able to migrate and pollinate

What can edge effects also include?

• changes in microclimates

• increased incidence of fire

• increased vulnerability to species invasion

• Increased susceptibility to disease

What is an animal examples of Habitat fragmentation?

• wild reindeer herds (there’s multiple breaks in their range of travel)

  • They’re now broken into 23 isolated subpopulations in Southern Norway

Pesticide Pollution

• Rachel Carson

  • Silent Spring

  • The effects of DDT on killing birds and animals (Hawks, fish, eagles, dolphins, polar bears, etc.)

• Farm workers

• Overconsumption of Seafood

Water Pollution

• runoffs of pesticides, herbicides, different oil products, heavy metals (like mercury, lead, or zinc), detergents, Polychlorinated biphenyls industrial waste, and pharmaceuticals

  • Pharmaceuticals with hormones negatively affect fish physiology and reproduction

• 90% of endangered fish and freshwater muscles in the US are threatened by pollution

• Eutrophication

• Plastics in the water

Eutrophication

process of degradation in aquatic environments caused by nitrogen and phosphorus pollution and characterized by algal blooms and oxygen depletion.

• this creates dead zones (areas where only species who can adapt to polluted water and low oxygen can survive)

Bioaccumulation/ Biomagnification

Air Pollution

• significantly effects flora (Plants)

  • damages to trees making them more susceptible to attack by insects, fungi, and disease

    • Lichens and mosses are very sensitive to air pollutants

Acid Rain

• a product of air pollution

  • its produced when industries (like smelting operations and power plants fueled by coal and oil) release huge quantities of nitrogen and sulfur oxide into the air

• When acid rain is combined with moisture- it produces nitric and sulfuric acid

• Acid rain causes tree death, increases toxins in aquatic systems, which decreases fish reproduction (a huge amphibian die off)

pH ranges in terms of air pollution for fish

The pH scale where acidity becomes lethal to fish.

• pH 2-5

  • Fish die

  • Acid rain (fish fail to spawn)

• pH 5-5.5

  • Normal range for rain

• pH 5-9

  • safe for most fish

Air pollution (how to improve it)

Create cleaner burning fuels, and reducing economic activity can result in less air pollution and reduced acid rain.

What are some examples of air pollution?

• Ozone production and nitrogen deposition

  • automobiles, power plants, and industrial activities release hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides as waste. When their presented with sunlight, they react with the atmosphere to produce ozone and secondary chemicals called photochemical smog

    • This is harmful to flora, fauna and humans.

• Toxic Metals

  • Lead

  • Zinc

  • Mercury

• Activities that produce toxic metals

  • Use of leaded gasoline

  • Mining

  • Smelting operations

  • Coal burning Industry

Greenhouse Gases

gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide, that are transparent to sunlight but that trap heat near the Earth’s surface

Greenhouse Effect

warming of the Earth caused by carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (like methane, water vapor and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere that allow the sun’s radiation to penetrate and warm the Earth but prevent the heat generated by the sunlight from re-radiating. Heat is trapped near the surface, raising the planet’s temperature.

Global Warming

the current and future increases in temperatures caused by higher atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases produced by human activities

Global Climate Change

climate characteristics that are changing now and will continue to change in the future, resulting in part from human activity

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

A group of leading scientists organized by the United Nations to study the impacts and implications of human activity on climate ecosystems

How much carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere everyday?

70 million tons

What is some evidence of global warming? (Table 9.3)

1. Increased temperatures and incidents of heat waves

   1. a heat wave across southern China in 2013 was the most severe on record. More than 300 stations exceeded 104°F.

2. Melting of glaciers and polar ice

   1. Arctic Sea summer ice has declined by 11% each decade. Of the 150 glaciers in Glacier National Park (Montana) only 25 are still larger than 25 acres.

3. Rising sea level

   1. Since 1938, 1/3rd of coastal marshes in wildlife refuge in Chesapeake Bay has been submerged by rising sea water

4. Earlier spring activity

   1. Spring arrives more than 10 days earlier in the Northern Hemisphere than it did in the 1950s

5. Shifts in species’ ranges

   1. The ranges of spiders, ground beetles, butterflies, and grasshoppers have shifted northward by more than 30 miles over the past 25 years in the UK

6. Population declines

   1. Climate change has been implicated in the extinction of populations of American pika, desert bighorn sheep, checkerspot butterflies, and several lizard and fish species

Assisted colonization

people establish populations of rare and endangered species at new, suitable localities outside of their current range. This may be done because climate change is rendering their current habitats unsuitable.

Video Notes- Global Warming - A video by NASA

• In the last decade, the earth’s temp rose 1/3rd of the

degree Fahrenheit

• NASA satellites measure the sun’s energy. Which fluctuates due to the 10-12 year cycle

• The solar cycle has only a slight impact on the climate change.

• The brightness of our planet reflects the most energy (Spots covered in ice reflects the most energy)

  • especially in the Arctic- its shrinking

• Our planet is becoming less reflective

• The clouds also reflect sunlight and brightness (causes some cooling)

  • The particles formed are called aerosols- they’re considered wild cards

• Water vapor, one of the most abundant greenhouse gasses. Though its cooling the planet, it is also warming it up

  • This is a heat trapping greenhouse gas

  • Carbon dioxide is the second most abundant greenhouse gasses

Bushmeat Crisis

the sharp decline in wild animal populations caused by humans hunting for food

• very dire in Africa

• Eating the bushmeat increases the likelihood of spreading new diseases

When the fish/ coastal food supplies are in demand, the locals use what?

bushmeat for protein needs

What are some examples of overharvesting/ overexploitation for coastal areas?

• fish

• sea turtles

• whales

• dolphins

• manatees

What is some examples of overharvesting/ overexploitation for plants?

• American ginseng

  • the roots are harvested for medicinal properties

    • They lower blood sugar and cholesterol

    • Promote stress relief

    • Diabetes treatment

    • manage sexual dysfunction in men

• Neopicrorhiza Scrophulariiflora

  • a himalayan medicinal plant used as a paste of the rhizome- used for coughs and colds

The Yew Tree- Harvesting Hope for Cancer Victims

Taxol

• Used for treating ovarian cancer (can also help in lung, breast, and other cancers)

• Made from the bark of a Yew tree

  • These are found in the old growth forests in the Pacific Northwest

    • Which is home to endangered species like the spotted owl

• The use of it could cause its extinction

• they’re now using renewable Yew clippings, needles, and bushes so that they don’t cut down the trees for harvest.

What are some of the major targeted groups in the worldwide Trade in Wildlife?

• Primates- 70,000- mostly used for biomedical research, as pets, and kept in zoos/ circuses

• Birds- 250,000- used for zoos and pets. Mostly perching birds but also illegal trade of parrots

• Ornamental Fish- 350,000- Most saltwater tropical fish. being caught illegal which may damage the surrounding wildlife and coral reefs

What are some examples of how conservation biologists help to regulate overexploitation?

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

• International Whaling Commission

• 
  

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

listing species with this organization often leads to protection of species or groups of species from further exploitation.

International Whaling Commission

group created by whaling nations to regulate sustainable whaling practice

What are some whale species that are endangered from being harvested by humans?

• North Atlantic right

• Blue whales

• Southern right

• Sperm whales

What are some examples of overexploitation and overharvesting?

• Frogs- Indonesia exports 100 million frogs to Western European countries for luxury meals

• USA exports millions of amphibians and reptiles for food, pets, clothing, etc

• Sea horses- Harvested in China for medicinal uses (like infertility, baldness, asthma, and arthritis) also the tourist industry

Y_max= rK/4

Y_max= maximum sustainable yield- the greatest amount of resource that can be harvested each year and replaced through population growth without detriment to the population

r= Maximum population growth rate

K= carrying Capacity= The largest population of biomass that a given area can support

Maximum Sustainable Yield

usually occurs when the population size is about half of the carrying capacity or when the biomass is half of its maximum value

Bycatch

animals, including marine mammals, sea turtles, and fish of no commercial value, killed unintentionally during large-scale fishing operations

• 25-75% of the harvest in fishing operations are dumped back into the sea to die.

Pacific Tuna on the Line

• the pacific- last ocean with healthy Tuna

• more than 70% of it is caught in the tropical waters

• tuna is under huge pressure. Yellowfin and bigeye tuna is in steep decline of population

  • Even skipjack is in trouble

• Greenpeace is aiming to find solutions

  • aims to shift fisheries politics

  • Suggests catching free swimming schools and fishing by pole and line

    • result in less bycatch

  • calling for areas to be safe reserves

• You can’t fish in the Pacific Commons (its banned)

Invasive Species

species outside of their natural range due to human activity that spread and rapidly increase in abundance often causing damage or displacement to the native species via competition for limiting resources.

Exotic Species

species that occur outside their natural range because of human activity that do not become established because the new environment is not suitable to their needs or they do not have sufficient numbers to establish a new population.

Anthropocene

unofficial term for the present geological period in which people significantly affect ecosystem processes

Native species

one that is found in a certain ecosystem due to natural processes, such as natural distribution and evolution. No human intervention brought a native species to the area or influenced its spread to that area. Native species are also called indigenous species.​

How are species introduced to new environments?

• european colonization- settlers arriving in new colonies and releasing hundreds of different species to new lands '

• Agriculture, horticulture, or aquaculture demands

• Accidental transport

• Biological control- when species become invasive, releases a native predator to consume it.

What are some examples of invasive species?

• Opossum shrimp- add them (on purpose) Flathead Lake in Montana, they eat all of the zooplankton, which left nothing for the Salmon to eat, which left nothing for the eagles, troutes, or grizzly to eat. (trophic cascade)

• Gypsy Moth- brought to the US by Trouvelot accidentally. They began killing off native insects that usually control other pests. The larvae killed so many Oak trees by feeding off of it

• Red imported fire ant- Introduced accidentally from south America. native spider species decline and diversity of native birds (like the bobwhites) has declined

  • they attach the bobwhites legs

From your knowledge of our previous lectures on mainland and island species, which region may be more susceptible to invasive species?​

island regions

• due to having a smaller area

• more niche specialization

• more specialists

• more endemic species

• more susceptible to diseases

What type of species may be introduced to lakes and streams? Why?

• sport fish

• fish for commercial production

• accidental introduction from boat ballast water

• purposeful release of aquarium fish

• Examples

  • Nile Perch- In lake Victoria of East Africa- affects cichlids

  • Sea lampreys- in Great Lakes of North America- affects trout

  • Zebra and Quagga mussels- in Great Lakes of North America- affects everything

The zebra and Quagga Mussels

• accidentally introduced to Lake Erie

• infestation and increase that risk due to boat trailer transportation (started from ballast water )

• they cause issues because they’re million and millions of them.

  • they clean out the water (eating the food-plankton) from the game fish.

  • Inhalant and exhalant cycle

  • as the muscles increase, the diatoms decrease and only tiny algae is available.

• They’re completely clearing the water

  • Lots of weeds in the water can grow into an issue

  • the bacteria mixture zqunox can be used to target and kill the muscles.

  • There is also a parasite that only attacks zebra and Quagga mussels

  • 
    

Diatoms

Large algae

What are some more invasive species?

• Nutria- introduced from south America for the fur trade

  • they trample and decimate wetlands

• Kudzu- from East Asia with China and Japan

  • its suffocating to other plants

    • a medicinal use- for diarrhea, menopause

• Water Hyacinth- from Amazon River Basin of South American

  • rapidly spreads and suffocated the life below the surface of swamps

GMO

Genetically modified Organisms

• Fear- they can harm birds, insects, soil organisms, and other species (including humans)

• Hope- that GMO crops will produce more food and require less pesticides, resulting in an improved water quality and healthier animals

What groups of organisms are susceptible to increased disease spread due to the loss of biodiversity?

ALL of them!

• Flora

  • Bacteria, virus, fungus, and plant can all transfer diseases to plants

• Fauna

  • Bacteria, viruses, fungus, and animals can all transfer diseases to plants

• Humans

  • Bacteria, viruses, fungus, and animals can all transfer diseases to humans

MIDAS

Models of Infectious Disease Agent Study

What are three reasons why conservation suffered during pandemics?

1. lack of enforcement efforts

2. loss of funding

3. lack of government support

What are some examples of spreaded diseases?

• dogwood are declining due to anthracnose disease (which was caused by the fungus Discula Destructiva )

• West Nile virus- first started in New York, then spread all over the US in 2012

• Ebola- type of hemorrhage fever. Allows virus to proliferate

  • starts after 2-20 days of initial symptoms

    • invades lymph nodes and vital organs

  • forces a cytokine storm which causes both internal and external bleeding

  •