How far were Gorbachev and Yeltsin responsible?

What do intentionalist historians focus on?

individuals → common in West, taken by biographers

What do structuralist historians focus on?

the political, economic and social structures

What do social historians focus on?

the view of the ruled rather than rulers = experiences of the population

How was Gorbachev viewed within the USSR, and within the West?

- figure of hatred within the USSR (failed reformer/destroyed USSR)
- celebrated in West = received Nobel Peace Prize 1990

How was Gorbachev naive?

- most of his policies had unintended results = made naive assumptions
- level of resistance = more than he expected (his experience should have prepared him)
- didn't consider that glasnost would open the floodgates of attacks on the central position

How did Gorbachev attack the base of his own power?

- reduced the power and role of the Party
- position as President of USSR = poor substitute → refused 1990 election
- contrasted Yeltsin's use of popular support and elections

What did Gorbachev's reforms have the effect of?

raising people's expectations (materially and politically) but failed to satisfy

What was the effect of Gorbachev's foreign policy?

end of Brezhnev Doctrine → did not anticipate rapid collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe, nor impact on nationalism

How did Gorbachev have insensitive handling of national minorities?

- ill-judged decisions = 1986 decision and Nagorno-Karabakh = inflamed tensions
- lack of clear strategy → confusion that led to deaths Vilnius January 1991

How was Gorbachev inconsistent?

- often gave mixed messages in his speeches

- November 1987 = commemorated anniversary - praised Stalin as a leader whilst condemning 'real crimes' = alienated reformers = switching position

- December 1990
→ reformer Vadim Bakatin (Minister of the Interior) replaced by hardliner Boris Pugo
→ Nikolai Ryzhkov (vice-president) replaced by Gennady Yanaev
→ 'move to the conservatives' - resignation of Eduard Shevardnadze (Foreign Minister and reformer)

- enemies on both sides = August Coup 1991 and unable to work with Yeltsin

How was Gorbachev indecisive?

- hesitant and postponed making crucial decisions
- Chernobyl = hesitated for several days
- poor choices
- May 1990 when Yeltsin stood for Chairman of the Congress of People's Deputies for RSFSR Gorbachev supported Alexander Vlasov = dull and uninspiring

Alexander Dallin said Gorbachev's actions
" P A C O D, D A D "

"produced a chain of destabilisation, delegitimation and disintegration"

Who have Gorbachev's reforms received support from?

historians, most noticeably Archie Brown in The Gorbachev Factor (1966)

What does historian Ronald Suny believe?

Gorbachev's error was to attempt economic reform, democratisation and decolonising the republics at the same time
→ all three at same time = too much and put enormous strain on the systenm
→ all intrinsically linked = required leader of immense talent

What were Gorbachev's skills?

intelligent (though limited understanding of economic matters) and had personal charm = kept broad support

What was to Gorbachev's credit?

- avoided using force (unlike Chinese approach - June 1989 Tiannamen Square)
→ despite pressure during 1990 declarations of independence by Baltic republics

What were unforeseen international factors?

- Soviet war in Afghanistan (due to Brezhnev taking too long to withdraw 1979)
- fall of world prices in oil = economic impact
- US Star Wars policy kept pressure to divert resources away from consumer goods
- 1988 major earthquake in Armenia resulted in over 25,000 deaths and added to pressure on Gorbachev's government

What did Yeltsin possess that Gorbachev never convincingly held?

the popular support

Why could Yeltsin challenge Gorbachev's leadership?

- reputation as a reformer
- base of popular support

What did Yeltsin use his time to do?

establish firmer links with other reformers and critics of Gorbachev

How was Yeltsin an expert at using opportunities to appeal to the public for sympathy and support?

- attack on Gorbachev and his policies at 1987 Central Committee Plenum = television coverage
- met with leaders of Russian Orthodox Church, visited striking miners and organised demonstrations = show support as Chairman of the Russian Congress
- March 1991, 200,000 gathered in Moscow to support Yeltsin

What did Gorbachev's decision to hold elections for the Congress of People's Deputies in 1989 do?

- gave Yeltsin an opportunity to launch his comeback
- mayor of Moscow = organised demonstrations → got 89% vote
- claim to legitimacy
- election to People's Congress gave him a platform to attack Gorbachev and government
→ realised hold of Party over government had to be broke

What did Yeltsin use to attack the central Soviet government?

his election to Congress of People's Deputies for the RSFSR in 1990

What enabled Yeltsin to be elected chairman of the Congress May 1990?

- his Democratic Russia movement secured most votes in the cities (countryside = conservative)
- direct challenge

What series of measures did Yeltsin pass that undermined Gorbachev?

- June 1990 Yeltsin resigned from the Communist Party
- Congress declared its sovereignty took precedence over that of the Soviet Union = Russian Congress considered itself above authority off Soviet government
→ Gorbachev declared illegal but → continual struggle

What did Yeltsin encourage?

nationalist movements (reduces government influence)

By 1990 Gorbachev and Yeltsin loathed each other so what was a surprise?

spring 1991 decided to work together
→ negotiated and support the Novo-Ogavero Agreement (basis of 1991 Union Treaty)
- Historian Robert Service = Yeltsin → cynical manoeuvre to keep a weak Gorbachev in power

Explain the August Coup of 1991.

- led by conservatives
- Gorbachev on holiday in Crimea = State Emergency Committee formed to take over running of the country
→ coup leaders = Vice President Gennady Yanaev, head of KGB Vladimir Kryuchkuv and Defence Minister Dmitri Yazov
- supported by some leading army officers
- press conference → Yanaev announced Gorbachev was ill (really under house arrest) and state of emergency would rule
- repressive measures = ban on strikes and demonstrations, tanks ordered in Moscow
- lasted 4 days → poorly planned and implemented

What enhanced Yeltsin's reputation?

demand that Gorbachev be released from house arrest and returned as President
→ defender of freedom and reform

What series of measures did Yeltsin quickly introduce that speeded up the collapse?

- launched a programme of market reform in the economy
- summer of 1991 the monopoly of the Party had been legally ended = Democratic Reform Movement allowed to run as a political party
- November = banned Communist Party within Russia

How did Yeltsin undermine the new Union Treaty?

- followed Ukrainian President Leonic Kravchuk who refused to sign and asked for further negotiations
- in its place Yeltsin organised the Commonwealth of Independent States = looser arrangement that required no central Soviet government
- implemented December 1991 = no more Soviet Union

What have interpretations of Yeltsin's role varied depending on?

personal view of writer towards the more liberal reforms

What issues have interpretations of Yeltsin's role focused on?

- Was Yeltsin more interested in his own power than principles?
- Was he prepared to sacrifice the Soviet Union for the sake of boosting his own political position?
- Did Yeltsin control events or simply make use of them? = well placed