AP PSYCH: Unit 2

Nature vs. Nurture

Biology makes us who we are vs. surrounding environment

Maturation

Process of following genetic plan

Twin Studies

A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

Adoption Studies

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

Neuron

a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Soma

Body/Cell

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Terminal Branches

form junctions with other cells, breaks off at end of axon

terminal buttons

Small knobs at the end of axons that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

action potential

firing of a neuron by sending an electrical charge down the axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

neural communication

The body's information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

- tiny gap between neurons

- protoplasmic kiss

reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction (alzheimers)

endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure (feel good after workout)

dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion (parkinson's disease, schizophrenia)

serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal (too little leads to depression)

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal (adrenaline)

agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

drugs that block/inhibit activity

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (alcohol, opiates, barbiturates)

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (caffine, cocaine, nicotine)

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Nervous System

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

skeletal/somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

The component of the autonomic nervous system that responds to stressful situations by initiating the fight-or-flight response.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

sensory neurons (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

Interneurons (association neurons)

found in neural pathways in the CNS, connect sensory and motor neurons

motor neurons (efferent)

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

neural networks

interconnected neural cells

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

pineal gland

secretes melatonin

thyroid

regulates metabolism

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

record of the electrical activity of the brain

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

Uses multiple X-Rays to create a 3D model of the brain. Only shows structure, not function

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce MOST detailed images of the brain

- atoms spin, giant magnet of MRI lines them up

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

where the spinal cord swells a lot

- helps coordinate movement (bridge to the cerebellum)

- bladder control, sleep paralysis

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum (little brain)

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal Lobes (Prefrontal Cortex)

most frontal region of the frontal lobe; involved in higher-order cognitive processes (planning, decision making, emotional control)

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

visual cortex

The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Angular Gyrus

transforms visual representations into an auditory code

brain plasticity

The capacity for the brain to alter its structure and function.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

left hemisphere of brain

The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for control of the right side of the body, and is the more academic and logical side of the brain.

right hemisphere of brain

The right hemisphere of the brain is responsible for control of the left side of the body, and is the more artistic and creative side of the brain.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Freud's Iceberg Theory

The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary memories.

subconscious/unconscious

not fully aware; occurring below your level of thinking and awareness

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm

-controlled by light to slow production of melatonin (hormone) from pineal gland

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

sleep cycle

passage through the four stages of NREM sleep (I, II, III, IV), then reversal (IV, III, II), and finally, instead of reentering stage I and awakening, entering REM sleep and returning to stage II

- as night goes on deep sleep/stage 4/NREM-3 gets shorter

- REM gets longer

why we sleep

- brain repair, reorganization, readiness

- memory

- conserve energy

- physical health: immune system strengthens and fights during sleep

- growth: pituitary gland releases growth hormone during deep sleep, can impact strength/performance/recovery physically and/or athletically

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Stage 1 NREM-1

2-5 minutes of light sleep

- brainwaves, breathing, slow

- hallucinations (false sensory experiences) may occur

- dreamlike sensations (see yourself doing something)

- hypnic jerk often occurs (sleep quake)

Stage 2 NREM-2

20 minutes long, clearly asleep

- happens on the way down to deep sleep and the way back up

- sleep spindles: bursts of brain activity

- may lead to sleep talking, this stage is where most sleep talking occurs

Stage 3 NREM-3

30 minutes long

- short transition period

Stage 4 NREM-4

deep sleep

- process some stimuli, ignore most

- may sleep walk, wet the bed

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep