HDFS 2300 Midterm

income inequality ____ during COVID

increased

higher incomes were more likely to work _____ during the pandemic

from home (less risk to health)

low-income earners had greater _____ in income and were far more likely to experience _____ during the pandemic

variability, job loss

shortage of ___ more strongly impacted ____ ability to work during the pandemic

affordable childcare, women’s

women were disproportionately likely to be _____ during the pandemic

frontline workers (health care, service industries)

2025 federal poverty level for family of 2 is _____

$21,150

poverty level used to indicate cost of living, therefore used to set the ___, but no longer does

minimum wage

government programs use ____% of the federal poverty level to determine ____

125-200, eligibility

living wage

how much it actually costs to live (housing, food, etc)

is the minimum wage a “living wage”?

no

broad disparities in poverty between

race, single parent vs two parent households, same-sex couples

disparities in poverty between race

35% white vs 61% black vs 66% hispanic

disparities in poverty between # parents (value?)

1/3 single parent families live in poverty — most single mothers

• median income for married families - $87,000

• median income for single father — $40,000

• median income for single mother — $25,000

disparities in poverty between sex of person

same sex (especially lesbian mothers) and transgender individuals more likely to live in poverty

cost of raising children from birth-17 is ____

$250K-$530K —- doesn’t include college

cost of raising child varies by ____ and ____

SES, region

Identity tasks & SES

• SES/social class can become cultural identity

• SES associated with types of behavior that parents value in children

• low-income families less likely to interact between parents and children — also maintenance tasks

Boundary tasks & SES

• different patterns of boundaries across social classes (low-income — intergenerational/extended kin households — pooling resources)

• differing expectations of giving and receiving support from relatives beyond nuclear family (low income - higher need — higher expectations of mutual support)

  • relates to internal boundaries (how much you need help/depend on others within system vs break away from)

Maintenance tasks & SES

• most obviously and directly impacted — money is key family resource

• money doesn’t buy happiness BUT poverty creates lots of problems/stress/limited resources

Emotional tasks & SES

• marital stress, dissatisfaction, domestic violence, and divorce all more likely for those in poverty

• lack of resources causes stress —> increased negative behaviors in families broadly

household

individuals who live together at a particular residence (might include those not familial related)

family

familially related individuals (might include members who live elsewhere but still part of overall family system)

diversity within family structures

• single parent (by widowhood, divorce, never married, etc)

• two partners (married, unmarried/cohabiting, living apart together)

• with/without children (share biologically/not)

gender, sexuality, race, disability, SES, intergenerational ties/households

marriage historically in the US historical trends

practical/polygamous and patriarchal roots (Doctrine of coverture)

—> “common law” to legal monogamy

—> gender roles split by industrialization (agrarian - separated home and work)

—> marriage declines in favor of cohabitation

—> expanding to include same-sex couples

divorce historically in the US historical trends

• native american under tribal laws — colonial fault-based (abuse, bigamy, infidelity, abandonment)

• revolutionary war — more common, informally separated, laws varied by state

• jumped after WW1/2

• 1970s - no-fault laws (DID NOT increase — correlation not causation)

• peaked in 80s, steadily declined/plateaued

• older adults today increasing

• NOT at an “all-time high” today

childbearing and childrearing historical trends

• 1700s - ½ died before adulthood (average birth to 7 kids, leading causes of death for women)

• medical advances lowered infant mortality rates dramatically

birth rate decline historical trends

• birth control technology drove early declines

• criminalized to push married women to reproduce

• post-war Baby Boom

• the pill and decriminalization drove steady decline to historic low below replacement

Identity tasks and family structure

• members and relationships core to defining family’s identity

• more people involved, more complex in sense of congruence about viewing each other and roles in family (who “should” be doing what)

Boundary tasks and family structure

• number/relationships of family members define what boundaries possible/desirable

• large families have more possible alliances/boundaries between members

• long-standing relationships closer than recent ones

• physical boundaries — live close to extended? so they can help?

Maintenance tasks and family structure

• # of people and ages shapes needs of family and who is available to meet those needs

• fam with more younger children have more demands than those without kids

• families with more adults (typically) more resources to manage tasks

• families split across households have more demands on resources than those in single household

Emotional tasks and family structure

different family structures face diff needs and deploy diff strategies

• stepfamilies — harder cohesion

• divorced — harder navigating conflict

• only children — diff experiences with closeness and rivalry

• single parent — diff closeness of relationships

family structure can be an important ___ on families and their processes, but it is not ____

influence, deterministic

whether families and their members thrive/struggle is determined by the ___ they use to address the ___ and ___ they face

strategies, challenges, needs

ethnicity

country/culture of origin (no genetic basis to ethnicity)

race

social construct (often defined by physical features socially identified — skin color)

is race differentiated by genetic differences?

NO, no genetic differences between race

assimilation

process by which a minoritized/immigrant group gradually adopts customs and attitudes of dominant culture

acculturation

process of adaptation that involves learning about a new culture and deciding which aspects of the culture of origin to retain or sacrifice

minority group

MIGHT BE demographically minority, BUT more about power and social positions

minority vs minoritized

an inherent characteristic vs something that is externally imposed on people

the ____ experience influences families, and the circumstances surrounding that experience are critical to understanding that ____

immigration, influence

immigration in US historical trends

open borders —> federal responsibility —> category-based exclusions —> national origins quotas —> quota elimination with a worldwide cap —> escalating enforcement and border security

family immigration in US historical trends

family-based immigration became backbone of legal migration (1965) —> DACA offered temporary protection for child arrivals (2012) —> zero-tolerance policy drove mass family separation (2017) —> reunification has remained incomplete

current immigration policies in US

• 675,000 permanent immigrant visas annually

• no limit on US citizen spouses, parents, children under 21

• no more than 7% from a single country

refugee

anyone outside their country of nationality who is unable or unwilling to return to their country because of either persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution

asylee

type of refugee who is already present in the US or who is seeking admission at a port of entry (can apply for asylum at port or within one year of arriving in US)

admission of refugees is based on ____, if it’s a group of “____”, and whether they already have ____ in the US

degree of risk, “special concern” (determined by prez each year), family

___ years after achieving resident status, refugees/asylees ___apply for _____

5, can, naturalization as US citizens

transnational families

live in 2 countries while one parent pursues better opportunities for benefit of family

satellite children (transnational families)

face difficulties with lack of attachment to parents and adjusting to new country

anchor babies

birthed in new country to “anchor” to host country — sometimes provides citizenship

• stigmatized — may/may not be motivation, neg connotation

challenges of immigration (general)

• 1/5 of children in US have 1 foreign-born parent

• poverty accompanies (1/3 foreign-born live)

• possible history of trauma that led to immigration

• age/stage of family career and individuals

• children and parents have different primary cultures

native americans broad

diverse population, among most disadvantaged in US, holds distinct cultural identity — collectivism, harmony with nature, spirituality, tradition, respect for elders, multigenerational care

native american historical trends

land grabbing and forced relocation, government disruption of families (boarding schools, eradicate Native American culture/language/traditions), forced assimilation, 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act

native american income and wealth gaps

wealth gaps rooted in forced seizure of land (key generational asset) through Homestead Act, Morrill Act, and Allotment Act

• extreme, persistent disparities: wealth at 8% of white households, 25% poverty, lowest college attainment, incomes well below national average

native american parents

• non-interference approach (supporting, learn natural consequences)

• shaming form of discipline — little physical punishment

• multiple adults involved (outsourcing)

• cultural definition of important milestones

• responsibilities assigned at younger ages than white families

european approach to parenting vs colonial america approach

europe: unidirectional approach, tabula rasa, nurture

colonial: children inherently bad and must be fixed, harsh discipline, “bend” children to goodness

colonial families in US

large but loss-prone, no “childhood” — work along parents, no strong attachment (assets and resources), paternal authority, stem families

stem families (colonial america)

one child remained in (and inherited) the family home or farm

african american/black families historically — early US

intentionally separated, parenthood/marriage not legally recognized, most still married, inability to own property — pass on generational wealth continued adverse impacts

african american/black families historically — post slavery

impoverished, allowed some to reunite/form and be legally recognized, more egalitarian than white but more likely to end, financial disadvantage led to reliance on extended family networks

african american/black families historically — 1900s

great migration (industrial jobs earn more), immigrants increase (Africa and Caribbean)

african american/black families in the US

• second largest minority group (~50 million)

• multiracial black individuals grown since 2000

• over ½ live in south

• black immigrant population has doubled since 2000

• more likely to be single (1/2 marry, 2x divorce, 4x separate)

• more likely to be single parents

• disproportionately live in poverty

BUT AT SAME TIME - college degree+ doubled, immigrants more likely to college than US pop overall, some made over $100,000, income inequality within households is widest of any racial/ethnic group

black/white income and wealth gap

exists and widened

• men 1979 - 22% difference, 2015 - 31%

• women 1979 - equal, 2015 - 19%

Blacks face institutional obstacles to accumulating wealth/savings — US tax code

• educational and marriage DON’T eliminate disparities

Black individuals who have ____/___/__ still acquire significantly less than Whites who ___ those qualifications

higher ed/married/higher incomes, lack

Black/african american families

collectivistic, extended, intergenerational, egalitarian gender roles, wide variation among father involvement, historical influence (slavery, systemic inequality), flexible family roles, positive racial identity, importance of education

black/african american parents

authoritarian, physical punishment (NOT abuse), explicit racial socialization and modeling, community towards children

latinx/hispanic families and policies historical trends

presence in US began with not immigration but annexation, followed by displacement, mixed citizenship, genocide in CA, 1900s labor programs, legal milestones, mass deportations, first refugee policy (Cuban Adjustment Act), and explosive population growth

latinx/hispanic families

subcultures (mexican, puerto rican, cuban, central american, south american, spanish)

higher incidence of poverty, language barriers, lower divorce rates, younger than white individuals (larger families)

NOT traditional stereotypes of “machismo” and “marianismo”

• caballerismo (nurturing, family-centered, chivalrous), more egalitarian, depends on who came when and where live, when does exist - women have household power and men have “public” control

latinx/hispanic income and wealth gaps

better off than Black but not much, ~21% of whites, persist across educational attainment and marital status, as well as over time/with age

latinx/hispanic parents

familialism (strong ties, intergenerational, family over marriage), parenting style changes over time (permissive younger, obedience and responsibility when older), physical punishment, gender differences in parenting (girl protected/restricted, strong mother-daughter ties, fathers more involved)

asian american families trends over time

immigration ran through successive waves — Chinese, Japanese, Korean, South Asian, Filipino — each met with exclusion laws, bans, and violence

• internment of 120,000 Japanese Americans (including citizens) marked extreme

broad bans until 1952, real openness only after 1965 and Southeast Asian refugee wave of 1970s

current Asian-American families

fastest growing racial group in US, diverse origins, group more important than individuals, traditional/gendered responsibilities, patriarchal lineage (father to son, own mother before wife), emphasis on education/achievement — honor

asian-american income and wealth inequality

average household income higher than whites but varies across education level BUT WIDE disparities between asian american families

asian-american parents

close physical ties between mother and child, permissive and indulgent with young, strict and demanding as age, control interactions and development (authoritarian parenting style), suppression of emotion

middle eastern/arab family history

“Middle East” and “Arab” are fluid, policy-driven categories, Arab Americans (diverse, largely Christian, undercounted group) arrived in three main waves, faced recurring discrimination — spiked after Iranian hostage crisis, 9/11, and Trump-era travel burn

sex assigned at birth (SAAB)

based on a baby’s visible anatomy

gender

the social expectations and construction of who we expect people to be and how we expect them to act, based on biological sex

(***gender roles vs gender stereotypes)

gender identity

the gender that someone personally identifies with

cisgender

gender identity matches SAAB

transgender

identify with another gender from SAAB

gender nonbinary/gender gluid/gender queer

someone feeling neither male nor female, both, or moving between the two over time

what constitutes biological sex?

chromosomes (XX or XY)

usually assign sex at birth based on ____

visible sex organs — strong tendency towards gender binary

biological sex — intersex

chromosomal pattern doesn’t match sexual anatomy or sexual anatomy is ambiguous at birth

• “raised” as girls

• cause problems when hormones increase in adolescence

• umbrella term — Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, Turner Syndrome

gender diversity in the US

small percentage identify as transgender, young adults most likely to identify as trans/nonbinary, increase in number of adults who know someone trans

very few differences between men and women are _____

biologically based

boys/men and girls/women are ____ differently in terms of___

socialized, emotional expression/personality/sexuality/colors/clothes/activities/labor/occupations

far more variability ____ genders than ___ genders

within, between — dramatic overlap between men/women, huge variability in traits

all cultures assign ___ to gender, but ___ in what they are

meaning, differ

individuals and relationships both are happier when people are more ___

androgynous (blend of masc and fem)

gendered socialization has implications for

• occupations (women more degrees, men more high-status occupations) — “feminine” occupations mirror unpaid work women did at home

• physical health (women 81.4, men 76.5 — more men die than women at every age)

• mental health (men more likely to attempt and succeed at suicide)

• relationships (romantic, parental, and friends)

• political/policy influence (women low)

when it comes to gender, we should think __/__, not ___/___

both/and, either/or

• not binary

• essential to daily experiences (real or not) - policies/societal expectations based on it

gender does matter in families

• political and social expectations differ

• mothers and fathers parent in different ways, experienced differently

gender doesn’t matter in families

• mothers and fathers individually or in combinations can raise happy/healthy children

• neither mothers nor fathers are “essential” to children’s well-being

statistically significant

based on sample size and size of the difference — also generalizability/representativeness

a statistical difference ____ always an important one

isn’t

gender differences in parenting

deeply gendered experience

• mothers — natural caregivers, fathers — natural providers/protectors

• transition to parenthood shifts to unequal and more traditional labor roles

gender deviance neutralization

women who out-earn husbands had increased involvement in housework, and did more housework than when men and women had equal incomes