POSC120: Midterm

Hindus and Muslims in India: Their Origins & the Tensions of the 1940s

• Hindu and Muslim identities in India became more politically defined under British colonial rule.

• By the 1940s, tensions increased between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah argued that Muslims needed a seperate state, while Gandhi and Nehru supported a unified India.

• These conflicts and rising communal violence ultimately led to Partition in 1947, which created India and Pakistan and caused mass displacement and violence

British India: The East India Company, Macauley’s Minute, and the Revolt of 1857

• The East India Company gradually transformed from a trading company into a governing power in India.

• In 1835, Macaulay’s Minute promoted English education and Western ideas for Indian elites.

• In 1857, a major uprising known as the Sepoy Revolt challenged Company rule.

• After suppressing the rebellion, the British Crown took direct control of India in 1858

Castes and Religious Groups in India and their Rough Proportions

• India is a religiously diverse country, with Hindus forming the large majority of the population, followed by Muslims and smaller groups such as Sikhs and Christians

• Indian soceity is also shaped by the caste system, which divides Hindus into hierarchical groups such as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Shudras along with Dalits.

• Although caste discrimination is legally prohibited, it continues to influence social and political life

Early Indian nationalism and the Subsequent Contributions of Gandhi

• Early Indian nationalism developed in the late 19th century through organizations like the Indian National Congress.

• Initially, it was led by educated elites seeking political reform.

• Mahatma Gandhi transformed the movement by introducing mass participation and nonviolent resistance.

• Through campaigns such as the Salt March and Quit India Movement, he mobilized millions of Indians against British rule.

The Nehru Family, from Motilal to Rahul

• The Nehru family has played a major role in Indian politics across generations.

• Motilal Nehru was an early nationalist leader in the Congress party.

• His son, Jawaharlal Nehru, became India’s first Prime Minister. Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal’s daughter, also served as Prime Minister and centralized political power.

• Rajiv Gandhi modernized India in the 1980s, and Rahul Gandhi continues as a Congress political figure today.

India’s governing institutions: e.g, Prime Minister, Lok Sabha, Federalism, and Judiciary

• India has a parliamentary democracy led by a Prime Minister who serves as head of government.

• The Parliament consists of two houses: the Lok Sabha, which is directly elected, and the Rajya Sabha, which represents states.

• India also operates under a federal system where power is divided between the central government and states.

• The judiciary, including the Supreme Court, is independent and interprets the Constitution

Jawaharlal Nehru, 1947-64- —Political Affairs, Economic Affairs, Foreign Affairs

• Jawaharlal Nehru played a central role in shaping modern India after independence in 1947.

• He promoted secularism, democracy, and national unity.

• Economically, he introduced a planned development model with state-led industries and Five-Year Plans.

• In foreign policy, he helped establish the Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War

Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister, 1966-77, 1980-84—the Politics and Policy (and melodrama)

• Indira Gandhi served as Prime Minister from 1966-1977 and again from 1980-1984.

• She centralized political power and declared the Emergency from 1975 to 1977, during which democratic rights were restricted.

• She also promoted populist policies such as “Garibi Hatao” and nationalized banks.

• Her leadership ended with her assassination in 1984, following Operation Blue Star.

Three Recent Periods of Congress Party Leadership: 1980-89, 1991-96, and 2004-14

• During the 1980s, Congress remained dominant but faced political instability and leadership challenges.

• In the early 1990s, India began major economic liberalization under Congress leadership, opening markets and encouraging private investment.

• From 2004 to 2014, the Congress-led UPA government expanded welfare programs but was also affected by corruption scandals and declining popularity.

The BJP (and RSS), 1992-2004, including Ayodhya, Nuclear Testing, and “India Shining”

• The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), influenced by the RSS, rose to national prominence in the 1990s.

• The demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in 1992 intensified Hindu nationalist politics.

• In 1998, the BJP-led government conducted nuclear tests, strengthening India’s global status.

• However, the 2004 “India Shining” campaign failed to win elections, showing limits of its economic narrative.

  • campaign aimed to highlight national economic optimism, infrastructure development, and a “feel-good” factor

Tharoor’s Portrait of Relatively Young Jawaharlal Nehru, 1889-1921

• Shashi Tharoor describes young Jawaharlal Nehru as an elite Western-educated intellectual shaped by British schooling and exposure to European ideas.

• He gradually developed nationalist sentiments and became increasingly critical of colonial rule.

• During this period, Nehru moved from elite comfort toward political engagement.

Tharoor’s Portrait of Nehru during the Independence Movement

• Tharoor portrays Nehru as a key figure in the Indian independence movement who worked closely with Gandhi and the Congress Party.

• He supported nonviolent resistance and secular nationalism.

• Nehru also spent time in prison for political activism, which strengthened his leadership role within the movement.

Tharoor on the Positive and Negative Sides of Nehru as Prime Minister

• Tharoor highlights Nehru’s achievements in establishing democratic institutions, promoting education, and building scientific infrastructure such as the IITS.

  • IITS (Indian Institutes of Technology)

• However, he also notes weaknesses such as excessive state control of the economy and slow economic growth.

• Nehru’s leadership is therefore seen as visionary, but imperfect.

Modern India on the Positive and Negative Sides of Nehru as Prime Minister

• In modern assessments, Nehru is credited with laying the foundations of Indian democracy and maintaining national unity after independence.

• His emphasis on secularism and institutional development is widely respected.

• However, critics argue that his economic policies created inefficiencies and a large bureaucratic system that slowed development.

Modern India: “Rethinking India,” “Social Revolution,” and “Youth”

• Modern India has undergone significant change since economic liberalization in 1991.

• The economy has grown rapidly, and a large middle class has emerged.

• Social structures are changing, especially in urban areas, and India’s large youth population plays an increasingly important role in shaping politics and economic growth.

Jaffrelot’s Chapter 1 on the BJP’s Path to Power Amid Caste (and OBC) Demographic Constraints

• According to Jaffrelot, the BJP initially relied heavily on upper-caste support, which limited its electoral base.

• To expand, the party gradually incorporated Other Backward Classes (OBCs) into its Hindu nationalist coalition.

• Caste politics, especially after the Mandal Commission, reshaped the BJP’s strategy for national growth.

Jaffrelot’s Chapters 2 and 3 on Narendra Modi’s Rise to Power

• Jaffrelot explains that Narendra Modi’s rise was shaped by his background in the RSS and his reputation as a strong organizer.

• As Chief Minister of Gujarat, he built an image of efficiency and development, especially after 2002.

• He later used strong messaging and political strategy to gain national leadership.

Jaffrelot’s Chapter 4 on Modi’s Economic and Social Policies in his First Years in Office

• In his early years as Prime Minister, Modi promoted himself as a pro-business leader focused on economic growth and infrastructure development.

• Programs suchj as the “Gujarat model” were used to attract investment.

• However, his policies also faced criticism for uneven social outcomes.

Jaffrelot’s Chapters 5 & 6 on Hindu Majoritarianism vs. Secularism and Minorities

• Jaffrelot describes increasing tension between Hindu majoritarian politics and India’s secular constitutional framework.

• Minority communities, especially Muslims, have faced growing political and social pressures.

• This shift has contributed to increased polarization in Indian society.

Jaffrelot on the Bajrang Dal and the “Banalization of Savarkarism.”

• The Bajrang Dal is a militant youth organization associated with Hindu nationalist ideology.

• Savarkar’s concept of Hindutva has influenced this political vision of Hindu identity.

• Jaffrelot argues that these ideas have become more normalized in mainstream politics over time.

Narendra Modi as an RSS Pracharak and BJP Organizer

• Narendra Modi began his career as an RSS pracharak, where he was trained in discipline, ideology, and organizational work.

• This background helped him develop strong grassroots networks within the BJP.

• He later became a highly effective political strategist and campaign leader.

Narendra Modi and the Gujarat Violence of 2002

• In 2002, Gujarat experienced severe communal violence during Modi’s tenure as Chief Minister.

• The violence led to significant loss of life and displacement.

• It remains a highly controversial episode in Indian politics and continues to influence debates about Modi’s leadership and legacy.