international relations

what is migration?

the voluntary movement of people from one place to another, either temporarily or permanently, often for work or residency.

What are refugees?

people compelled to leave their country to escape war, political persecution, or natural disaster, seeking safety elsewhere.

internally displaced persons

People forced to flee their homes but remain within their country's borders.

What are asylum seekers?

People fleeing oppression and seeking permanent residence or sanctuary in another country.

What are economic migrants?

People who migrate to another country in search of better economic opportunities.

nomads

People engaged in seasonal migration, often for economic reasons like herding, without intending to settle permanently.

UN Migration Agency definition of a migrant

anyone making a voluntary choice for legal employment or residency abroad

What are the economic contributions of migrants?

Migrants generate over 15% of global GDP and contribute through remittances and cultural diversity.

How many legal migrant workers are there globally as of 2024?

Approximately 179 million.

What is the current global refugee population?

Around 120 million forcibly displaced persons, according to the UN.

Where are most refugees located?

86% of displaced people are in developing countries, with key hosts including Turkey, Iran, Germany, Colombia, and Pakistan.

Which five countries are the largest sources of refugees?

Afghanistan, Syria, Venezuela, Ukraine, and Sudan.

Why do less developed countries host most refugees?

Due to their proximity to conflict zones and the restrictive immigration policies of developed nations.

What motivates refugee movements?

Political repression, violence, war, economic hardship, environmental issues, and personal despair.

What is existential security?

The sense that one’s personal survival and that of loved ones is reasonably secure.

What is ontological security?

A mental state derived from a sense of continuity and control over one’s life.

fragile states

States with weak political and economic systems that can no longer maintain control, often a major source of refugees.

Name three fragile states in 2024.

Somalia, Sudan, and Afghanistan.

What is the UNHCR?

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, responsible for the protection and support of refugees worldwide.

What are the three solutions proposed by the UN Convention on Refugees?

Repatriation, local integration, and resettlement in third countries.

How effective are these solutions?

In 2023, only about 2.3% of refugees globally received one of these solutions.

What is the average duration of stay in refugee camps?

10–20 years.

What challenges do refugees face in camps?

Confinement, lack of employment, dependency on aid, and lack of opportunities for self-sufficiency.

What is urban destitution?

Refugees avoiding camps to live precariously in urban areas, often engaging in illegal or exploitative activities for survival.

What is human trafficking's role in migration?

Criminal organizations profit from facilitating dangerous illegal migrations, often leading to exploitation.

what is food insecurity?

Inadequate access to nutritious food for a healthy life.

water insecurity

Lack of reliable access to safe and sufficient drinking water.

causes of food and water insecurity

Climate change, natural disasters, conflict, overuse of resources, and pollution.

What are some solutions to food insecurity?

Sustainable agriculture, global cooperation, and conservation practices.

How can water insecurity be mitigated?

Improved water management systems and equitable resource distribution.

What is the definition of a pandemic?

A contagious disease that spreads across countries and regions to become global.

What are some historical examples of pandemics?

Spanish Flu, Black Death, and the Plague of Athens

zoonotic transmission

transfer of disease from animals to humans

What are standard practices to control pandemics?

Community mitigation, vaccination, masking, social distancing, and hand washing.

Why are pandemics considered ecological challenges?

Environmental changes like habitat destruction increase disease transmission

What is a major economic impact of pandemics?

An estimated cost of over $6 trillion globally in the 21st century.

What are some long-term solutions for pandemic prevention?

Protecting habitats, equitable vaccine distribution, and strengthening international cooperation.

Why is international cooperation crucial in pandemic management?

Pandemics cross borders, requiring collective global efforts to combat them.

What role does urbanization play in pandemics?

It disrupts ecosystems, increasing human-wildlife contact and zoonotic disease risks.

conflicts

Disagreements or struggles between individuals, groups, or nations, often arising from differing interests, beliefs, or goals.

what is the goal of conflict research?

To study inter- and intra-state conflict and develop effective techniques for conflict prevention, management, and resolution.

What are the three assumptions of conflict research?

• Conflict is a universal phenomenon on a continuum from interpersonal to international levels.

• Conflict studies require a multidisciplinary approach, integrating psychology, sociology, and international relations.

• Conflict is a normal and endemic feature of social life, increasing with interdependence

What are some core questions in conflict studies?

• What are the basic concepts needed to analyze conflicts?

• What distinct types of conflict can be identified?

• What causes conflicts, and how do they develop?

• How do conflicts impact involved parties?

• What outside factors influence conflicts?

• Why and how do conflicts end?

What are the three components of Christopher Mitchell's triangular model of conflict?

• Conflict Situation (Sources): The existence of parties with incompatible goals.

• Conflict Behavior: Actions parties take during the conflict.

• Conflict Attitudes and Perceptions: Emotional and psychological dimensions of the conflict.

How are the three components of the triangular model interconnected?

They interact to create a holistic image of conflict, serving as a basis for conflict management techniques.

What are the techniques for conflict avoidance?

• Supplying Valued Goods: Reduce competition for scarce resources.

• Minimizing Demands: Manage perceived needs and adapt value structures.

• Developing Superordinate Goals: Foster shared overarching goals to reduce contention.

What are the two processes of conflict prevention?

1. Conflict Suppression: Limit disruptive behavior through techniques like arms control and peacekeeping.

2. Conflict Regulation: Channel conflict into acceptable, sanctioned forms, such as rule-based procedures and institutional frameworks.

What is the difference between conflict settlement and conflict resolution?

• Conflict Settlement: Focuses on compromise without altering the underlying goal structure.

• Conflict Resolution: Aims to address and eliminate the root causes of goal incompatibility

What is "ripeness" in conflict studies?

The point when parties perceive more losses from continued conflict than gains, leading to a readiness for negotiation or resolution.

What are the stages of negotiation?

• Pre-negotiation: Setting terms and protocol.

• Face-to-face negotiations.

• Implementation of agreements.

What defines an intractable conflict?

• Long duration (10+ years).

• Stalemates and polarization.

• Ineffectiveness of traditional conflict management techniques.

What are characteristics of intractable conflicts?

• Historical weight.

• Conflict traps.

• Movement from promotion to destruction.

• Simplification of perceptions.

• Emotional dominance over reason.

• Focus on short-term outcomes.

What are techniques for addressing intractable conflicts?

• Event Mapping: Create a chronological account of events.

• Conflict Mapping: Develop a conceptual framework for understanding the conflict.

• Core Skills: Build evidence-based conflict management practices.

• Actionables: Apply tailored techniques to specific conflicts.

The Paris Agreement

An international treaty signed during COP21 in 2015, committing 196 parties to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

COP21

The 21st Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC held in Paris, which resulted in the Paris Agreement.

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

Gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) that trap heat in Earth’s atmosphere, driving global warming.

Global Warming

The increase in Earth’s average surface temperature due to elevated greenhouse gas concentrations caused primarily by human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

1.5°C Threshold

The target of the Paris Agreement to prevent catastrophic climate effects, though current trends indicate temperatures may exceed this by the end of the century.

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

An international environmental treaty adopted in 1992 aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

Environmental Security

Defined by the UN Millennium Project as ensuring the environmental viability for life support, addressing six challenges including degradation, poverty, and health threats.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs; emphasized in the UN's 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

Anthropogenic Climate Change

Climate change resulting from human activities, particularly since the Holocene epoch, driven by industrial emissions, agriculture, deforestation, and fossil fuel consumption.

Carbon Sink

Natural systems such as forests and oceans that absorb more carbon dioxide than they emit, helping mitigate climate change.

Ocean Acidification / souring

The decrease in pH levels of oceans due to CO₂ absorption, affecting marine life and ecosystems.

Loss of Biodiversity

The extinction of species and habitats caused by environmental degradation, disrupting ecosystems and diminishing biological variety.

Urbanization and Urban Sprawl

The shift of populations from rural areas to urban centers, with megacities causing environmental and social challenges.

Environmental Economics

A discipline addressing the economic impact of environmental degradation, emphasizing the need for sustainable market practices and valuing natural resources

Global Commons

Shared resource domains like the atmosphere, oceans, and forests, vulnerable to overuse and degradation due to lack of regulation.

The Tragedy of the Commons

A concept describing the depletion of shared resources when individuals act in their own interest rather than collectively managing the resource sustainably.

Net-Zero Emissions

A goal of balancing greenhouse gas emissions with removal efforts to achieve climate neutrality, as outlined in the Paris Agreement.

Climate Neutrality

Achieving a balance between emitting and absorbing greenhouse gases, aiming to reduce the global impact of climate change.

Limits to Growth (1972)

A report warning of ecological collapse due to unchecked environmental damage and advocating for sustainable growth.

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring

A 1962 book that initiated the modern environmental movement by exposing the harmful effects of pesticides like DDT.

Zoonotic Transfers

The transmission of pathogens from animals to humans, often linked to human encroachment on wildlife habitats, exemplified by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Environmental Politics

The study of the impact of ecosystems on human communities and policies addressing anthropogenic environmental degradation.