Myers, Exploring Psychology in Modules Module 3

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or b building new pathways based on experience

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

dendrite

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

listen; speak

dendrites _______ axons _________

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

multiple sclerosis

If the myelin sheath degenerates, __________ results: Communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

worker

neurons are to queen bees as glial cells are to _____ bees

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

-55mV

threshold for action potential

resting potential (-70mV)

there are typically positive ions outside and negative ions inside the neuron which we call ___________

ions

electrically charged atoms

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all or none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

excitatory; inhibitory

Most signals are _______, somewhat like pushing a neuron's accelerator. Some are _______, more like pushing its brake.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

synaptic gap/cleft

The tiny gap at the synapse is called the

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, _______ travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

serotonin

affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest)

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

neural networks

The brain's neurons cluster into work groups

spinal cord

two-way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.; "fight or flight"

pituitary gland (aka master gland)

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the ______regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

hypothalamus

brain region controlling the pituitary gland

thyroid gland

affects metabolism

parathyroids

help regulate the level of calcium in the blood

pancreas

regulates the level of sugar in the blood

antagonist

decrease a neurotransmitter's action by blocking production or release

agonist

increase neurotransmitter's actions

brainstem

oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls hearbeat and breathing

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center; located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal (wakefulness)

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory (motor memory; balance)

limbic system

neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion (aggression and fear)

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

occpital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements (sends)

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations (receives)

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

RIGHT hemisphere

perceptual tasks, self awareness , making inferences

LEFT hemisphere

math and language

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (w/o a DNA change)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to subsequen generations

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change