Quiz 2 Early Modern China 2026

White Lotus Society

Time: Late Yuan to 1368

Explanation: The White Lotus Society was a religious movement with roots in popular Buddhism. It was in opposition to the Yuan government

Relevance: Zhu Yuanzhang used the rebellion against the Yuan to build his own power.

Maitreya Buddha

Time: Been around since ancient times, for our class late yuan to 1368

Explanation: Future buddha, Maitreya prophecies to claim that a new, righteous era was coming and that the existing government would be replaced.

Relevance: Gives religious legitimacy and popular support for rebellion against the Yuan dynasty/dynastic cycle restart.

Zhang Shicheng

Time: 1350s to 1367

Explanation: One of Zhu Yuanzhang’s major rivals, a former salt smuggler that takes violent revenege (1353) becoming bandit and amassed a large following and controls Su Zhou.

Relevance: Part of the reason why Zhu Yuanzhang was so harsh on Suzhou to affirm has legitmacy.

Red Turbans

Time: 1350s - 1368

Explanation: anti-Yuan rebellion → Zhu Yuanzhang joins → Zhu gains power → defeats rivals → establishes Ming in 1368

Relevance: Zhu Yuzhang gains an army from red turbans (married daughter of a general), launching pad for his power.

Zhu Yuanzhang (Ming Taizu)

Time: 1328 - 1398

Explanation: A former peasant and Red Turban rebel who defeated rival rebel leaders and the Yuan Dynasty, becoming the first emperor of the Ming.

Relevance: Founder of the Ming Dynasty; established a highly centralized government and policies that shaped the early Ming state.

Li Shanchang

Time: 1314–1390

Explanation: A trusted adviser and chief minister to Zhu Yuanzhang, helping him organize the government and consolidate power during the transition from Yuan to Ming rule.

Relevance: Helped Zhu Yuanzhang establish and administer the early Ming government, making him an important figure in the dynasty’s founding.

Pre stamped document case

Time: Late 14th century, early Ming

Explanation: A system in which officials received pre-stamped official documents that could be used to carry out government actions, reducing the need to obtain the emperor’s approval for every individual decision.

Relevance: Helped the Ming government centralize and control bureaucracy while allowing officials to process routine administrative matters efficiently. (Hongwu purges - his harsh reign)

Hu weiyong

Time: ? - 1380?

Explanation: Hu Weiyong was accused of treason and plotting against the emperor and was executed in 1380, along with many officials allegedly connected to him.

Relevance: The Hu Weiyong Incident gave Zhu Yuanzhang justification to abolish the position of chief minister/chancellor, greatly increasing the emperor’s direct control over the government, crack down on the gentry.

Lijia

Time: Early Ming Dynasty, established under the Hongwu Emperor in the late 14th century.

Explanation: A local administrative and taxation system that organized households into groups of 110 households (10 jia of 10 households, plus 10 households serving as leaders) for purposes such as tax collection and labor service.

Relevance: Helped the Ming government organize the population, collect taxes, and enforce labor obligations, strengthening state control over rural communities.

Jianwen

Time: 1398–1402

Explanation: Jianwen Emperor attempted to reduce the power of his powerful uncles, who governed semi-autonomous military regions, leading to conflict with his uncle Zhu Di.

Relevance: His reign ended with the Jingnan Campaign (1399–1402), when Zhu Di defeated him and became the Yongle Emperor, marking a major transition in early Ming politics.

Zhu Di (yong le)

Time: 1403 - 1424

Explanation: Son of Zhu Yuanzhang who rebelled against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, and seized the throne after winning the Jingnan Campaign (1399–1402).

Relevance: Ming state emphasis on exapansion/military, moved the capital to Beijing, expanded Chinese power through anam, excursions into mogol, and zheng he voyagese.

Fang Xiaoru

Time: 1357–1402

Explanation: A Confucian scholar and adviser to the Jianwen Emperor who refused to support Zhu Di's takeover of the throne and was executed after Zhu Di became emperor.

Relevance: Became a symbol of Confucian loyalty to the legitimate ruler and illustrates the political conflict and resistance surrounding Zhu Di's seizure of power.

Grand Canal

Time: Ancient origins; expanded significantly under the Sui and Yuan dynasties and maintained/expanded by the Ming, especially under Zhu Di in the early 1400s.

Explanation: A massive network of canals connecting northern and southern China, allowing grain, goods, and people to be transported efficiently between regions.

Relevance:Crucial to the Ming because it connected Beijing to the wealthy agricultural south, allowing the government to supply the northern capital with grain and helping strengthen central imperial control.

Western Mongols (oirat)

Time: 1400s–1500s

Explanation: The Oirats were a powerful confederation of Western Mongol tribes who competed with the Ming and other Mongol groups for control of the steppe.

Relevance: They were a major military threat to the Ming's northern frontier; Oirat leader Esen Khan defeated and captured the Zhengtong Emperor at the Tumu Crisis (1449).

Annam

Time: 1407–1427

Explanation: Annam refers to northern Vietnam, which the Ming conquered in 1407 under the Yongle Emperor and attempted to incorporate directly into the Ming Empire.

Relevance: The occupation was a major example of Ming territorial expansion under Zhu Di, but Vietnamese resistance led to the Ming withdrawal in 1427 and the restoration of Vietnamese independence.

Zheng He

Time: 1405–1433

Explanation: A Muslim Chinese admiral and eunuch who led seven large-scale maritime expeditions across the Indian Ocean, reaching Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa.

Relevance: His voyages demonstrated Ming wealth, military/naval power, and imperial influence abroad and helped establish tributary relationships with foreign states.

Eastern Depot

Time: Established in 1420 under the Yongle Emperor.

Explanation: A eunuch-run secret police and intelligence agency that monitored officials, investigated suspected threats, and reported directly to the emperor.

Relevance: Strengthened the emperor’s personal control over the bureaucracy and expanded the political power of eunuchs during the Ming Dynasty.

Embroidered Uniform Gaurds

Time: 1382 under the Hongwu Emperor

Explanation: An imperial secret police and military guard unit that protected the emperor, investigated officials, and could arrest and interrogate people suspected of crimes or political threats.

Relevance: Helped Zhu Yuanzhang maintain tight personal control over officials and suppress potential opposition, contributing to the highly centralized nature of early Ming rule.

Grand Secretariat

Time: 1402 under the Yongle Emperor and became increasingly important during the Ming Dynasty.

Explanation: A group of senior officials who assisted the emperor with reviewing documents, drafting policies, and managing the enormous volume of government business.

Relevance: Helped the emperor manage the centralized bureaucracy without restoring the powerful position of chancellor that Zhu Yuanzhang had abolished.

Yongle dadian

Time: 1403–1408, commissioned by the Yongle Emperor (Zhu Di)

Explanation: A massive encyclopedia compiling knowledge from Chinese texts on subjects including history, literature, science, geography, and philosophy.

Relevance: Demonstrated the Ming state’s cultural and intellectual power under Zhu Di and helped preserve a huge amount of Chinese knowledge, although much of the original encyclopedia was later lost.

Xuande Emperor

Time: 1425–1435, fifth emperor of the Ming Dynasty

Explanation: Zhu Zhanji, the grandson of the Yongle Emperor, who continued many of Yongle’s policies but focused more on domestic stability and effective government.

Relevance: His reign is often associated with a period of relative stability and prosperity in the early Ming, and it marked the end of the major state-sponsored voyages of Zheng He (turn to gentry/offcials, away from eunchs, expansion etc.). Forcus more on confucian “morally right” leader.

Zhengton Emperor (yingzong)

Time: 1435–1449 and 1457–1464; ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor, then briefly as the Jingtai Emperor’s successor after returning to power as the Tianshun Emperor.

Explanation: The young emperor was heavily influenced by the eunuch Wang Zhen and personally led a campaign against the Oirats, where he was captured during the Tumu Crisis (1449).

Relevance: The Tumu Crisis was a major turning point for the Ming, exposing military and political weaknesses and shifting the dynasty toward a more defensive strategy against the northern Mongols.

Esen

Time: 1407–1455, especially powerful during the 1440s.

Explanation: Esen Khan was the leader of the Oirat Mongols who defeated the Ming army and captured the Zhengtong Emperor during the Tumu Crisis in 1449.

Relevance: His victory demonstrated the military vulnerability of the Ming and forced the dynasty to strengthen its northern defenses rather than relying primarily on offensive campaigns.

Wang Zhen

Time: Died in 1449, during the reign of the Zhengtong Emperor.

Explanation: A powerful Ming eunuch and adviser to the Zhengtong Emperor who encouraged the young emperor to personally lead a military campaign against the Oirats.

Relevance: His influence was closely associated with the Tumu Crisis (1449), when the Ming army was defeated by Esen and the Zhengtong Emperor was captured.

Tumu incident

Time: 1449, during the reign of the Zhengtong Emperor.

Explanation: The Ming emperor personally led a campaign against the Oirat Mongols, but the Ming army was defeated at Tumu, and Oirat leader Esen captured the Zhengtong Emperor.

Relevance: A major military disaster for the Ming that exposed weaknesses in its military and government and led to a greater focus on defending the northern frontier.

Tianshun Emperor (Yingzhong)

Time: 1457–1464, the second reign of the Zhengtong Emperor, after he returned to power.

Explanation: After being captured by the Oirats in the Tumu Crisis (1449) and later released, the former Zhengtong Emperor regained the throne in 1457 through the Duomen Coup and ruled under the reign name Tianshun.

Relevance: His restoration demonstrated the political instability and power struggles within the Ming court, particularly between the emperor, military officials, and eunuchs.

Five Relationships (Confucian Family Values)

Time: ancient times

A key concept in Confucianism outlining the five cardinal relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend, which emphasize mutual respect and duty.

Ancestor Worship

The practice of honoring deceased ancestors through rituals, offerings, ancestral tablets, and maintaining graves, reflecting Confucian filial piety and family lineage. Strengthening focus on paternal line.

Virilocal marriage

A marriage practice in which the wife moves into the husband’s household or community, strengthening the husband’s patrilineal family.

Dowry

Property, money, or goods given by a bride’s family to the bride upon marriage, often becoming part of the new household’s wealth

Brideprice

Money, property, or goods given by the groom’s family to the bride’s family as part of a marriage arrangement

Inner quarters

The private, gender-segregated area of the household where women were expected to manage domestic affairs and remain separate from men’s public activities

Zhu Xi’s Family Rituals

A guide outlining Confucian family rituals such as weddings, funerals, ancestor worship, and coming-of-age ceremonies that shaped family practices in Ming China

Footbinding

The practice of tightly binding girls’ feet from a young age to create small, arched feet, associated with female beauty, status, and marriageability

Minor Marriage

A practice in which a young girl was married or betrothed at a very young age, sometimes raised in her future husband’s household before adulthood.

Uxorilocal Marriage

A marriage practice in which the husband moves into the wife’s household, often occurring when the bride’s family lacked a male heir.

Zu Lineage

A patrilineal family lineage made up of men descended from a common male ancestor, emphasizing shared ancestry, family property, and ancestor worship.

City Gold Temple

A local temple dedicated to the City God, a deity believed to protect the city and oversee its residents, where people made offerings and sought divine protection.

She Altar

A community altar dedicated to the local earth god (She Shen), where villagers offered sacrifices for protection, prosperity, and good harvests.

Placard of the People’s Instructions

A set of six moral instructions issued by the Hongwu Emperor to promote Confucian values, filial piety, and social order among the population.

Community Elders

Local respected figures who helped enforce moral standards, mediate disputes, and maintain social order within Ming communities.

Standard Market

A regulated local market where goods were exchanged and prices were influenced or supervised by local authorities to maintain order.

Zhu Xi (1130 - 1200)

Song dynasty philosopher who created Neo-Confucianism, teaching that the principle (li) of all things can be understood by investigating the classics, commentary became the basis of the imperial civil service exams from the Yuan dynasty onward.

Wang Yangming (1472-1529)

challenged this orthodoxy by arguing that principle is found in the mind itself and that moral knowledge must be unified with action, directly opposing Zhu Xi's emphasis on external study

Jinshi (presented scholar)

Highest degree in imperial China's civil service examination system, earned by passing the metropolitan level exam. Carried enormous prestige and power for a scholar and his family.

Zhengde Emperor (1502-1521)

known for neglecting court duties and letting powerful eunuchs like Liu Jin dominate government.

Wang Yangming was flogged and exiled to Longchang in Guizhou in 1506 after protesting Liu Jin's persecution of officials, and it was during that exile that he reached his key insight that principle lies in the mind, not in external things.

Jiajing Empror (1521 - 1567)

a ruler who became increasingly absorbed in Daoist rituals and withdrew from daily governance, while also asserting his authority over the court, nder Jiajing he was initially honored and his teachings spread widely, but after his death in 1529 the court condemned his doctrines as heterodox and stripped him of his posthumous honors

Great Learning

einterpretation of the Confucian text Daxue (and his essay Inquiry on the Great Learning), in which he rejected Zhu Xi's rearranged version and argued that "investigating things" (gewu) means correcting your own mind and extending your innate moral knowing (liangzhi) into action. It matters because the text was a core exam classic, so reinterpreting it was a direct challenge to Zhu Xi's orthodoxy.

Single Whip Reforms (16th century)

Consolidated the Ming's many tax and labor-service obligations into a single payment in silver, assessed mainly on land. This pushed peasants to sell goods for cash and tied the whole economy to silver, accelerating commercialization.

New World Crops (16th century)

Maize, sweet potatoes, and peanuts grew on marginal hill and sandy land unsuitable for rice or wheat. They fed a rapidly growing population and freed up better land for cash crops like cotton and mulberry.

Handicraft Industries

Rural households and regional centers produced textiles (especially cotton and silk) for market rather than just for their own use, often in the Jiangnan region. This created a market-oriented, cash-based economy of specialized production, with merchants coordinating supply and distribution.

Porcelain: Jiandezhen

ingdezhen in Jiangxi became the leading porcelain center, with a highly specialized division of labor across many workshops, including imperial kilns. Its exports (paid for largely in New World silver) show how Chinese manufacturing tied into global trade.

Shamanism

• Summary: Manchu religious tradition in which ritual specialists (saman) mediated between the living and the spirits, and which shaped clan and ancestral rites.

• Relevance: A marker of Manchu distinctiveness; the Qing kept these rites at court while also ruling as Confucian emperors.

Nurhaci (1559-1626)

• Summary: Jianzhou Jurchen leader who unified the Jurchen peoples, created the banners and a Manchu script, and began the conquest of Liaodong.

• Relevance: Founder of the state that eventually conquered the Ming, and the Ming’s northeastern frontier problem in person.

Aisin Gioro clan

• Summary: The imperial clan descended from Nurhaci that supplied every Qing emperor.

• Relevance: Explains the dynasty’s internal politics, including succession fights and princely power (e.g., Dorgon).

Eight Banners

• Summary: Nurhaci’s military-social organization that grouped households into banner units that fought, farmed, and were administered together.

• Relevance: The core institution of conquest and later of Manchu privilege and garrisons; it made the Qing a “conquest elite” regime rather than a typical Chinese dynasty.

Beile (chieftains, princes)

• Summary: Jurchen/Manchu chiefs and princes, mostly Nurhaci’s sons and nephews, who led banners and shared decision-making.

• Relevance: Shows early Manchu rule as collective and consultative; Hong Taiji later centralized power at the beiles’ expense, which sets up the succession struggles of 1643.

Liaodong (“transfrontiersmen”)

• Summary: The Ming-ruled region east of Shanhaiguan, home to a mixed Han, Jurchen, and Korean frontier population.

• Relevance: Frontier Han who moved between Ming and Jurchen worlds became bannermen, advisors, and generals, which is how the Qing acquired the Chinese expertise it needed.

Fan Wencheng (1597-1666)

• Summary: Han literatus from Liaodong who became a leading Qing strategist, pushing for Ming-style institutions and for taking China.

• Relevance: Example of Han collaboration and of how the Qing adopted Chinese bureaucratic forms.

Shang Kexi (c. 1604-1676)

• Summary: Ming general from Liaodong who surrendered to the Qing and later ruled Guangdong as a Han prince.

• Relevance: One of the Three Feudatories; shows how the Qing used defecting Han generals and then had to manage their power.

Dorgon (1612-1650)

• Summary: Nurhaci’s 14th son, who as regent led the Qing into Beijing in 1644 and directed the early conquest.

• Relevance: Architect of the conquest and the queue order; his death opened the way for the Shunzhi emperor’s personal rule.

Shunzhi emperor (1644-1661)

• Time: Enthroned 1643 as a child; ruled personally from 1651; died 1661.

• Summary: First Qing emperor to rule from Beijing, who consolidated the conquest after Dorgon’s death.

• Relevance: Marks the shift from conquest to governing China as a Qing dynasty

Wu Sangui (1612-1678)

• Time: Opened Shanhaiguan to the Qing in 1644; revolted in 1673; died 1678.

• Summary: Ming frontier general who allied with Dorgon against Li Zicheng, then ruled Yunnan as a Qing feudatory before rebelling.

• Relevance: His choice in 1644 helped end the Ming, and his rebellion (the Three Feudatories) was the Qing’s greatest early test.

Shi Kefa (c. 1601-1645)

• Time: Defended Yangzhou in spring 1645.

• Summary: Southern Ming minister of war who refused to surrender Yangzhou and was executed.

• Relevance: Became the model Ming loyalist martyr, showing the limits of Qing legitimacy among Han elites.

Yangzhou

• Time: Fell and was sacked in May 1645.

• Summary: Wealthy Yangtze city whose capture was followed by a notorious massacre of its population by Qing troops.

• Relevance: Symbolizes the violence of the conquest and the long memory of resistance, though casualty figures are debated.

Queue

• Summary: Manchu hairstyle (shaved forehead, braided back) that Qing forced all Han men to adopt on penalty of death.

• Relevance: The key symbol of submission and cultural identity; it triggered resistance, especially in Jiangnan, and ties into debates over Manchu versus Han identity.

Kangxi Emperor (1662-1772)

Relevance: Kangxi (r. 1661-1722) matters because he secured Manchu Qing rule over a Han-majority empire by combining military conquest with Confucian legitimacy.

Summary: After taking personal control in 1669, he crushed the Three Feudatories, annexed Taiwan, fought the Zunghars, and patronized Han scholarship, laying the groundwork for the High Qing era.

Special Exam for Scholars of Board of Learning (1679)

Kangxi summoned prominent scholars, recommended by officials, to a special examination for “Erudite Scholars of Vast Learning,” then appointed about 50 successful candidates to the Hanlin Academy to compile the Ming History, a way to co-opt Han literati, including Ming loyalists, into Qing service. (If your class materials say “Board of Learning,” that may be a translation of the Hanlin Academy or the Board of Rites, so check your reading.)

Gu Yanwu (1613-1682)

Ming loyalist and pioneer of evidence-based scholarship (kaozheng) who refused to serve the Qing and declined to be recommended for the Ming History project, which made him a model of principled loyalism.

The Peach Blossom Fan (Taohua shan, 1699)

a historical drama by Kong Shangren, a descendant of Confucius, that dramatizes the fall of the Ming dynasty through the love story of the scholar Hou Fangyu and the courtesan Li Xiangjun. it blames Ming factionalism and corrupt officials (rather than the Qing) for the fall. same period Kangxi was courting Han literati. That makes the play a useful case of the ambiguity of Han elite responses: mourning the Ming while living under, and even benefiting from, Qing rule.

Dai Mingshu Case (1653-1713)

Dai Mingshi, a Tongcheng scholar and Hanlin official, was executed after his writings were found to use Southern Ming reign titles and to praise Ming loyalist sources, and Kangxi had him put to death in 1713 for treasonous, anti-Qing writing, with relatives and associates also punished.