PPL

PPL Requirements

• At least 17 years old

• Read, speak, write, understand English

• Receive flight training and logbook endorsement from authorized instructor

• Pass private pilot knowledge test

• Meet aeronautical experience requirements

• Hold US student, sport, or recreational pilot certificate

• Hold at least a 3rd class medical or BasicMed

Privileges

• Act as PIC of an aircraft

• Act as PIC of an aircraft for compensation or hire in connection with business if the flight is incidental to the business and doesn’t carry passengers or cargo for hire

• Reimbursed for search and location operating expenses

• PIC for charity

• Demonstrate aircraft to potential buyer (200+ hours)

• Test fly aircraft after major alteration

Limitations

• Cannot act as PIC or SIC for an aircraft that carries passengers or cargo for hire

• Cannot pay less than the pro-rata share

Special Endorsement Required

• Tailwheel

• Complex: has flaps, retractable gear, variable pitch prop

• High performance: one engine has more than 200 horsepower

• High altitude: service ceiling above 25000’

Responsibilities of PIC

• Carry pilots license, gov-issued ID, medical cert

• Responsible for and final authority over the operation of the aircraft

• Ensure the aircraft is airworthy before flight

• In an in-flight emergency, the PIC may deviate from any FAR as necessary to meet the emergency

Currency

• Definition: minimum legal requirements to act as PIC under specified conditions. Same category, class, and type of aircraft.

• To act as PIC: every 24 months; flight review OR obtain another cert/rating OR complete at least one FAA WINGS phase

• To carry passengers:

  • Day: 3 takeoffs and landings w/in 90 days

  • Night (or tailwheel): 3 takeoffs and full-stop landings w/in 90 days

Medical Certificates

• 1st Class: <40 12 mos., >40 6 mos.

• 2nd Class: <40 12 mos., >40 12 mos.

• 3rd Class: <40 60 mos., >40 24 mos.

• BasicMed: physical exam every 48 mos., online course every 24 mos.

If unable to obtain a medical

Special Issuance: limited medical certificate issued for pilots with disqualifying conditions such as mental, neurological, or cardiovascular disorders

Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA): Allows a pilot w non-progressive medical conditions (e.g. color vision deficiency, missing limb) to obtain a medical certificate after demonstrating the ability to safely operate an aircraft

Required Equipment VFR Day

Airspeed indicator

Tachometer

Oil pressure gauge

Magnetic compass

Altimeter

Temp gauge (for each liquid-cooled engine)

Oil temp gauge (for each air-cooled engine)

Fuel quantity gauge

Landing gear position indicator

Anti-collision lights

Manifold pressure gauge (turbocharger or variable pitch prop)

ELT

Seat belts

Required Equipment VFR Night

Fuses (spare set or 3 of each)

Landing light (if operating for hire)

Anti-collision light system

Position (navigation) lights

Source of electricity

Unairworthy and still need to fly?

• Call FSDO

• Get special flight (ferry) permit

Inspections

Annual inspection: every 12 mos., can count for 100-hour

Airworthiness directives

VOR equipment check: every 30 days, IFR only

100-hour inspection: if flying for hire/instruction, cannot count for annual

Altimeter: every 24 mos., IFR only

Transponder: every 24 mos.

ELT: every 12 mos., battery replaced/recharged after 1 hr cumulative use or ½ useful life

Aircraft Documents

Airworthiness certificate

Registration

Radio operators license (if international)

Operating limitations

Weight and balance

METAR

Aviation weather report; issued hourly

TAF

Terminal Aerodrome Forecast; valid for 24 or 30 hours; issued 4 times daily.

PIREP

Pilot weather report; provides actual inflight conditions. Either routine (UA) or urgent (UUA)

Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FB)

Winds not forecasted w/in 1500’ of station elevation.

Temps not forecasted for 3000’ level or within 2500’ of station elevation.

Temps above 24000’ are always negative.

Surface Prognostic

Depicts forecasted weather patterns at the surface for a specified future time period. Includes information on pressure systems, forms, precipitation, and general weather conditions. Closely spaced isobars indicate a steeper pressure gradient (more wind)

Weather Briefing Types

Standard: Complete weather picture

Abbreviated: Update or supplement

Outlook: For departures 6+ hours away

AIRMET

Issued for moderate weather that may affect small aircraft.

Types:

• AIRMET Sierra: IFR conditions and mountain obscuration

• AIRMET Tango: Moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds 30+ knots, low-level wind shear

• AIRMET Zulu: Moderate icing and provides freezing level info

Issued: every 6 hours (or as needed)

SIGMET

Advises of severe weather conditions (not associated with thunderstorms) hazardous to all aircraft.

Conditions:

• Severe icing

• Severe or extreme turbulence

• Dust storms, sandstorms, volcanic ash reducing visibility to < 3 miles

Duration: valid for up to 4 hours

Convective SIGMET

Issued for convective weather hazards like thunderstorms.

Conditions:

• Embedded thunderstorms

• A line of thunderstorms

• Thunderstorms w heavy precip affecting 40%+ of an area at least 3000 sq miles

• Surface winds 50+ knots due to severe thunderstorms

• Hail ¾ + inch in diameter

• Tornadoes

Issued: Hourly, valid for up to 2 hours

Standard Brief Elements

• Adverse conditions: Significant weather that may affect flight

• VFR flight not recommended: conditions below VFR mins

• Synopsis: big-picture weather patterns

• Current conditions: METARs along route

• En route forecast: expected weather along route

• Destination forecast: TAF for arrival area

• Winds aloft: forecast winds at various altitudes

• NOTAMs

Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic (SIGWX)

Significant weather forecast at the surface and low altitudes (up to 24000 ft MSL)

Shows areas of VFR, MVFR, and IFR, as well as turbulence, icing, and freezing levels

Pressure systems

High pressure: clockwise rotation, sinking air. Typically brings clear skies and stable conditions.

Low pressure: counterclockwise rotation, rising air. Associated with clouds, precipitation, and unstable weather.

Dew point

The temperature at which air must be cooled to become saturated and form clouds. A small temperature/dew point spread increases the likelihood of fog, low clouds, or carb icing.

Stability

Cool, dry air resists vertical movement (stable).

Warm, moist air is unstable and can form thunderstorms.

Temperature inversion

Temperature increases with altitude (opposite of normal lapse rate).

Stable air, poor visibility, risk of wind shear at inversion layer.

Standard lapse rate

Temp decreases 2°C per 1000’

Pressure decreases 1” Hg per 1000’

Fronts

Warm: stratiform clouds, poor visibility (red half circles)

Cold: towering cumulus, thunderstorms, good visibility (blue triangles)

Stationary: hardly moves, a combination of cold and warm front weather (red/blue)

Occluded: severe weather (pink circles/triangles)

Cloud base height ranges

Low: bases below 6500’ AGL (no prefix)

Middle: bases 6500-20000’ AGL (alto-)

High: bases above 20000’ AGL (cirro-)

Cloud form classification

Cumulus: heaped or piled (puffy)

Stratus: layered

Cirrus: wispy, thin, high

Nimbus: rain-bearing

Lenticular: lens-shaped, forms over mountains

Icing dangers

Increased weight: more lift is needed to maintain altitude

Reduced lift: disrupted airflow decreases wing efficiency

Increased drag: more resistance slows the aircraft

Decreased thrust: ice on the prop reduces engine efficiency

Icing intensity

Trace: perceptible, not hazardous

Light: occasional use of deicing/anti-icing systems needed

Moderate: hazardous accumulation; frequent deicing required

Severe: rapid buildup overwhelms deicing systems; immediate diversion required

Icing types

Clear icing: smooth, transparent ice from large droplets, spreading over surfaces. Forms between 0°C and -10°C

Mixed icing: blend of rime and clear, creating uneven, rough buildup. Forms between -10°C and -15°C

Rime icing: opaque, rough ice from small droplets, usually on leading edges. Forms between -15°C and -20°C

Frost: thin ice layer forming when a surface is below freezing and dew condenses

Fog

Radiation (ground fog): ground cools rapidly, air reaches dew point. Risk of ice fog in very cold temps

Advection fog: warm, moist air moves over cold surface (e.g. coastal fog in San Francisco)

Steam fog: cold, dry air moves over warm water. Associated w turbulence and icing

Upslope fog: moist air mass forced up sloping land, like mountains

Wind shear

Sudden change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance.

Low-level: near frontal boundaries, thunderstorms, temperature inversions

High level: associated with jet streams, clear air turbulence

Thunderstorm stages

Requirements to form: sufficient moisture, an unstable lapse rate, and a lifting action

Cumulus stage: warm, moist air rises, forming strong updrafts and vertical cloud growth (instability)

Mature: most intense stage, with strong updrafts and downdrafts, heavy rain, turbulence, and lightning

Dissipating: Downdrafts dominate, rain weakens, but microburst potential remains

Thunderstorm hazards

Turbulence: severe, especially in mature stage

Microbursts: powerful downdrafts causing dangerous wind shear

Hail: can cause structural damage to aircraft

Lighting: affect instruments or cause structural damage

Icing: can form within clouds

Wind shear: rapid wind shifts that can cause sudden airspeed and altitude changes

Cross-Country Preflight Action

NOTAMs

Weather conditions

Known traffic delays

Runway lengths of intended landing

Alternates in case of diversion

Fuel requirements (FAR 91.151)

• Day: fly to first point of intended landing, then cruise 30 minutes

• Night: fly to the first point of intended landing, then cruise 45 mins

Takeoff and landing distances

Right-of-way rules

Aircraft in distress: ROW over all other aircraft

Converging (same category): aircraft on the right has ROW

Different categories: balloon > glider > airship > airplane/rotorcraft

Approaching head on: both aircraft alter course to the right

Overtaking: aircraft being overtaken has ROW; overtaking aircraft passes on the right

Landing: aircraft on final or landing has ROW; lower aircraft has ROW

Night definitions

Logging night time (FAR 1.1): between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight

Night pax currency (FAR 61.57): period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise

Aircraft lights (FAR 91.209): from sunset to sunrise, nav and anticollision lights on

NTSB Accident/Incident Reporting (NTSB 830)

Accident: Death, serious injury, or substantial aircraft damage

Serious injury: Hospital >48 hours within 7 days; bone fractures (except fingers, toes, nose); severe bleeding; nerve/muscle/tendon damage; internal organ injury; burns over 5% of body

Substantial damage: Affects structural strength, performance, flight characteristics; excluded minor damage (e.g. engine failure, bent fairings, small dents)

Immediate notification required for:

• Accident

• Serious Incident: flight control malfunction; crew incapacitation; in-flight fire; collision in flight; property damage >$25,000; overdue aircraft believed in accident

Reporting: Operator to submit written report within 10 days for accidents, 7 days for overdue aircraft

Preserve wreckage: Don’t move wreckage unless necessary to protect from further damage, rescue persons, or protect the public

Seatbelt regulations

Pilot: seatbelt worn when at station; harness during takeoff & landing (unless not equipped or duties prevent)

Passengers: seatbelts & harness worn during surface movement, takeoff, landing

PIC duties: before takeoff, brief passengers on belts/harnesses; notify them to fasten before movement

Minimum safe altitudes

Anywhere: altitude allowing emergency landing without undue hazard if power fails

Congested areas: 1000’ above the highest obstacle within 2000’ radius

Other than congested areas: 500’ above the surface

Sparsely populated areas: 500’ away from any person, vessel, vehicle, structure

Navigation techniques

Pilotage: Navigation using visual landmarks (map + eyes)

Dead reckoning: Navigation by calculating heading, time, speed, wind, and distance

Navigation definitions

True course (TC): Ground track relative to true north

Magnetic course (MC): TC corrected for variation. East is least (subtract), west is best (add)

Wind correction angle (WCA): The angle added/subtracted to account for wind drift

Magnetic heading (MH): MC corrected for wind

Compass heading (CH): MH adjusted for compass deviation

Magnetic compass errors

Deviation: magnetic interference from aircraft (use compass correction card)

Magnetic dip: Compass tilts toward magnetic poles; stronger near poles

Acceleration error (ANDS): Accelerate North, Decelerate South (E/W headings)

Turning error (UNOS): Undershoot North, Overshoot South

Oscillation error: erratic readings due to turbulence

Variation: difference between true and magnetic north, found using isogonic lines on charts

GPS

GPS: 24 satellites orbiting Earth; need signals from 4+ satellites for 3D fix

RAIM: Receiver monitors GPS signal integrity; alerts pilot to errors

WAAS: Enhances GPS accuracy using ground stations; provides correction data

Elements of a VFR flight plan

1. Aircraft information: aircraft type, registration number, and equipment codes

2. Pilot info: name and contact details

3. Departure and destination: airport identifiers and estimated departure time

4. Route of flight: planned route, including waypoints, headings, and altitudes

5. Estimated Time En Route (ETE): expected flight duration

6. Fuel on board: amount of fuel in hours and minutes

7. Alternate airports: optional; other airports nearby in case of diversion

8. Number of souls on board: for emergency purposes

9. Remarks: any additional relevant details, such as equipment issues or special requests

Lost Procedures (5 Cs)

Confess: admit you’re lost

Climb: increase altitude for better communication and visibility

Conserve: throttle back and circle to save fuel

Communicate: Call ATC or FSS for assistance

Comply: follow directions from ATC