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Louis Joliet

French explorer (with Jacques Marquette) of the upper Mississippi River valley (1645-1700).

Jacques Marquette

French missionary who accompanied Louis Joliet in exploring the upper Mississippi River valley.

La Salle

Explored Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico and claims Louisiana for France.

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who claimed the St. Lawrence River region for France, laying the foundation for New France.

King William's War

(1689-1697) Small war between French and English that had small battles fought in Northern New England.

Comte de Frontenac

Very resourceful, competent French commander who inflicted considerable damage on the English colonies.

Queen Anne's War

Second Anglo-French war in North America (1702-1713) that ended with the Treaty of Utrecht.

Treaty of Utrecht

Peace of Utrecht, series of treaties between France and other European powers giving Britain upper Canada.

King George's War

The third Anglo-French war in North America (1744-1748), part of the War of the Austrian Succession.

Louisbourg

Strategic French fortress captured by New Englanders during King George's War but returned by Britain in the peace treaty.

French and Indian War

A war in North America between France and Britain (both aided by Indian tribes) from 1754 to 1763.

George Washington

22-year-old Virginia colonel sent to protect British interests in the Ohio River Valley.

Fort Duquesne

Strategic French stronghold built at the forks of the Ohio River.

Fort Necessity

The makeshift, poorly positioned stockade George Washington was forced to build and surrender to the French in 1754.

guerrilla warfare

Hit-and-run raids used effectively by the French and their Native American allies.

Iroquois Confederacy

The powerful alliance of Native American tribes that sided with the British during the French and Indian War.

Albany Congress

A meeting of leaders of several colonies that was meant to achieve colonial unity and create a defense against France.

Benjamin Franklin

Proposed the "Albany Plan of Union" for a centralized colonial grand council.

Acadians

French Catholics living in British-held Nova Scotia who were forcibly relocated by the British.

Edward Braddock

British general who was defeated and killed near Fort Duquesne due to open-field tactics.

Marquis de Montcalm

French General defeated and mortally wounded at the Battle of Quebec.

Marquis de Vaudreuil

Governor-General of New France who clashed with Montcalm over military strategy and favored guerrilla warfare.

William Pitt

English statesman who turned the tide of the war by heavily funding it and focusing military energy on Canada.

James Wolfe

English general who led troops up a steep cliff to capture Quebec, marking the beginning of the end for New France.

Jeffrey Amherst

British general appointed by William Pitt who successfully captured crucial French strongholds like Louisbourg and Montreal.

Battle of the Plains of Abraham

Fought just outside of Quebec, won by the British, and served as the decisive turning point battle of the war.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

This treaty ended the Seven Years' War and completely removed France's mainland empire from North America.

George III

King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760 to 1820 who moved to tighten imperial control over the colonies.

Pontiac

Famous chief of the Ottawa who led an unsuccessful multi-tribal rebellion against the British (1715-1769).

power of the purse

Meant that salaries for royal officials, military appropriations, and taxes had to pass the scrutiny of elected officeholders.

Proclamation Line

British policy that forbade the colonists to settle beyond the Appalachian Mountains.

George Grenville

British prime minister who decided the colonists should help pay off national war debt with new taxes.

Sugar Act

The 1764 revenue act that placed a tax on certain goods imported into the colonies like sugar, molasses, and coffee.

Stamp Act

A 1765 tax that the British Parliament placed on newspapers, calendars, and official documents sold in the American colonies.

internal tax

A direct tax levied on goods produced and consumed entirely within the colonies rather than on imported goods.

external tax

A tax levied on goods imported into the colonies and collected at ports, which Parliament claimed was a legal trade regulation.

Sons of Liberty

Secret societies formed to protest new taxes passed by Parliament, often using intimidation and boycotts.

Samuel Adams

Founder of the Boston chapter of the Sons of Liberty and one of the most vocal patriots for independence.

Quartering Act

Required that the colonists help supply provisions and housing for the standing British army during peacetime.

Patrick Henry

Outspoken member of House of Burgesses; inspired colonial patriotism with his fiery anti-taxation speeches.

Stamp Act Congress

A 1765 meeting of delegates from nine colonies in New York that formally denounced the Stamp Act.

Declaratory Act

1766 law passed alongside the Stamp Act repeal stating Parliament had absolute power to tax and legislate for colonies "in all cases whatsoever."

Townshend Acts

The 1767 acts proposing direct taxes on imported glass, paint, paper, and tea while authorizing Writs of Assistance.

Writs of Assistance

Blank, general search warrants authorized by the Townshend Acts allowing officials to search any property for smuggled goods.

John Dickinson

Author of "Letters from a farmer in Pennsylvania" who protested the Townshend Acts and later wrote the Articles of Confederation.

Boycotts

Refusals to buy British goods organized throughout the colonies as a peaceful form of economic protest.

Boston Massacre

The March 5, 1770 confrontation where British troops fired into an angry crowd, killing five unarmed colonists.

Crispus Attucks

A sailor of African and Native American descent who became the first colonial casualty killed during the Boston Massacre.

John Adams

Colonial lawyer who successfully defended the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre to demonstrate commitment to justice.