NBL Module 14 Notes

A brain region located between the cerebral cortex and diencephalon, associated with emotions and including structures like the amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate cortex, septal nuclei, mammillary bodies, and fornix.

Limbic System

A collection of nuclei in the temporal lobe responsible for processing emotions, identifying threats, initiating fight-or-flight responses, and involved in positive stimuli processing, memory consolidation, and various behaviors.

Amygdala

A seahorse-shaped structure in the temporal lobe crucial for memory consolidation, spatial memory, and information transfer between short-term and long-term memory, part of the hippocampal formation with regions CA1 through CA4.

Hippocampus

A region above the brainstem controlling homeostasis, hormone release, and various bodily functions, linked to the pituitary gland, and involved in regulating metabolic processes, autonomic nervous system activities, and behaviors like hunger, thirst, and sleep.

Hypothalamus

A stalk-like structure connecting the brain to the spinal cord, comprising the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain, regulating vital functions like heart rate, breathing, motor and sensory pathways, and playing roles in motivation, reward, and cranial nerve functions.

Brainstem

A brain area associated with executive functions such as self-control, planning, decision-making, and problem-solving, divided into subregions like dorsolateral, dorsomedial, ventrolateral, ventromedial, and orbitofrontal areas, interacting with other brain regions to process sensory information and formulate responses. The front part of the frontal lobe in the mammalian brain responsible for high-order cognitive functions, emotion regulation, executive functions, and social behavior.

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

The region of the prefrontal cortex that regulates the external world, including working memory, abstract reasoning, and attentional regulation.

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

The area of the prefrontal cortex that regulates the internal state, including emotion, reward, and punishment representations.

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex

Associated with language production, particularly Broca's area, and linked to depression.

Left Hemisphere of Prefrontal Cortex

Responsible for inhibiting inappropriate thoughts, actions, and emotions.

Right Hemisphere of Prefrontal Cortex

Synaptic connections affecting prefrontal cortex function, where too little or too much arousal can weaken prefrontal abilities, leading to mental disorders.

Arousal Systems

A neurodegenerative disorder where cortical tau pathology spreads to the prefrontal cortex, causing impairments in abstract reasoning, recall, language deficits, and personality changes.

Alzheimer's Disease

The map of structural and functional connections in the brain, crucial for understanding how different brain regions interact and communicate. It’s basically a detailed map of all the connections in the brain, essential for understanding brain regions and their connections.

Connectome

A project aiming to identify and map distinct cortical areas in the brain, providing valuable insights into brain functions.

Human Connectome Project (HCP)

Physical connections between nerve cells in the brain, crucial for understanding brain wiring.

Structural connections

How different parts of the brain work together, focusing on ongoing conversations between brain regions.

Functional connections

The significant role of AI in generating vast neural connection data, surpassing human comprehension, to unlock insights into brain development.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Neuroscience

The brain's ability to change and rewire over time, impacting learning, memory retention, and brain repair after injury. The brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization, including forming new connections and making systematic adjustments like cortical remapping.

Neuroplasticity

The concept that frequently used synapses are strengthened while underused ones are weakened or removed, emphasizing the importance of brain activity.

"Use it or lose it"

The brain's ability to change and adapt through the formation and modification of synapses, crucial for learning and memory retention.

Synaptic plasticity

A spine-autonomous system critical for synaptic plasticity, involving the protein BDNF and its receptor TrkB in shaping synapse structure and strength.

BDNF-TrkB signaling loop

The ability of the brain to change based on activity, with implications for development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage.

Activity-dependent plasticity

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, a protein supporting neuron survival, growth, and differentiation, crucial for learning, memory, and higher thinking.

BDNF

The process where parts of the adult brain can grow new neurons from neural stem cells.

Neurogenesis

The cellular organelle where BDNF is made before being secreted from dense-core vesicles.

Endoplasmic reticulum

Structures involved in the secretion of BDNF, disruption of which can lead to severe developmental defects.

Dense-core vesicles

A compound that appears to upregulate BDNF and TrkB expression, potentially impacting cognitive function.

Niacin

A receptor for BDNF, involved in mediating the effects of BDNF on neurons.

TrkB

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the anatomy of the amygdala?

The amygdala is a subcortical region within the temporal lobe

The amygdala is part of the limbic cortex within the hippocampal formation

The amygdala contains three nuclei called the basolateral nucleus, the corticomedial nucleus and the central nucleus

All of these answers

The amygdala is an almond shaped region located adjacent to the thalamus

The amygdala is a subcortical region within the temporal lobe

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES inputs to and outputs from the amygdala?

The amygdala is directly interconnected with the primary sensory cortex for each of the senses, including olfaction

In the amygdala, the basolateral complex has reciprocal connections with the basal ganglia and cerebellum

All of these answers

The amygdala has reciprocal connections with the hippocampus, hypothalamus and brainstem

The amygdala sends information to the premotor cortex for the control of autonomic functions

The amygdala has reciprocal connections with the hippocampus, hypothalamus and brainstem

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the function of the amygdala?

The amygdala is involved in autonomic responses related to survival, such as the fight-or-flight response

The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, including fear, anger, pleasure, and motivation

The amygdala is responsible for providing emotional content to long-term declarative memories

The amygdala is involved in the modulation of a variety of cognitive functions, such as attention and perception

All of these answers

All of these answers

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the inputs to and outputs from of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus receives inputs from cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain, and from monoamine neurons in the brainstem

The direct output from the hippocampus is the subiculum. The subiculum transmits information to the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, entorhinal cortex, amygdala and nucleus accumbens

All of these answers

The hippocampus receives input directly from the entorhinal cortex. The entorhinal cortex receives information from sensory areas, thalamic nuclei, medial septal nucleus, hypothalamus, and brainstem

Within the hippocampus, the main inputs go to the dentate gyrus and main outputs emerge from CA1

All of these answers

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the function of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus is the region where long term declarative memories are stored

The hippocampus is involved in the integration of emotional information within the limbic system

The hippocampus is involved in the encoding of all long term memories

The hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation and encoding spatial and declarative memory

All of these answers

The hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation and encoding spatial and declarative memory

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the inputs to and outputs from the hypothalamus?

The hypothalamus contains the preganglionic neurons of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems

The hypothalamus receives direct sensory inputs from both somatic and autonomic/visceral sensory systems

The hypothalamus relays somatic and autonomic sensory information to the thalamus

All of these answers

The hypothalamus sends outputs to the brainstem, spinal cord and anterior pituitary

The hypothalamus sends outputs to the brainstem, spinal cord and anterior pituitary

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the function of the hypothalamus?

The function of the hypothalamus is integration and control of body functions for survival and reproduction

The hypothalamus releases hypothalamic hormones directly into the blood

All of these answers

The hypothalamus plays important roles in both voluntary somatic and involuntary autonomic motor systems

The hypothalamus controls the majority of autonomic behaviors through the release of hypothalamic hormones

The function of the hypothalamus is integration and control of body functions for survival and reproduction

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the function of the brainstem?

The brainstem contains only glutamatergic, GABAergic or glycinergic neurons

The brainstem contains nuclei that are essential for automatic, reflex and autonomic functions

The brainstem contains sensory white matter tracts but not motor white matter tracts

All of these answers

The brainstem contains the cranial nerve nuclei for all 12 of the cranial nerves

The brainstem contains nuclei that are essential for automatic, reflex and autonomic functions

The hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala and brainstem are all similar in that they contain_____.

Many individual nuclei with different connections and specific functions

Neurons that develop from the diencephalon

Both gray and white matter regions

All of these answers

Only glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons

Many individual nuclei with different connections and specific functions

In addition to the amygdala, which parts of the brain are also involved in emotion?

All of these answers

Cerebellum and basal ganglia

Anterior and posterior cingulate cortex

Nucleus accumbens and hippocampus

Prefrontal cortex and insula

All of these answers

Together, the _____ and _____ are involved in life sustaining functions that are necessary for survival.

Hypothalamus and brainstem

Basal ganglia and thalamus

Hypothalamus and thalamus

All of these answers

Brainstem and basal ganglia

Hypothalamus and brainstem

The majority of _____ functions involve the prefrontal cortex, with connections to other cortical regions.

Motor

Cognitive

Sensory

All of these answers

Survival

Cognitive

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the anatomy of the prefrontal cortex?

The prefrontal cortex expanded during vertebrate evolution

All of these answers

The prefrontal cortex contains dorsal and ventral regions with similar and redundant functions

The prefrontal cortex is composed of neocortex containing glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons

The prefrontal cortex is located in the posterior region of the frontal lobe

The prefrontal cortex is composed of neocortex containing glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the inputs to and outputs from of the prefrontal cortex?

All of these answers

The prefrontal cortex is highly interconnected (either directly or indirectly) with much of the brain, including extensive connections with other cortical, subcortical, and brainstem regions

The prefrontal cortex sends outputs to the premotor and supplementary motor areas of the motor cortex, as well as to the striatum in the basal ganglia

The prefrontal cortex has extensive connections with the anterior cingulate cortex

The prefrontal cortex receives inputs from the sensory association cortices and also from the thalamus

All of these answers

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the functional regions of the prefrontal cortex?

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved in executive functions, such as working memory, decision making, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and abstract reasoning

The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex is involved in impulse control and provides the emotional and reward components to decision making, planned behavior, and memory

All of these answers

The orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal cortex is involved in processing a sense of self, integrating social impressions, theory of mind, morality judgments, empathy and altruism, decision making, and top-down motor cortex inhibition

The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is involved in the processing of risk and fear, as it is critical in the regulation of amygdala activity, inhibition of emotional responses, and process of decision making, self control, and the cognitive evaluation of morality

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved in executive functions, such as working memory, decision making, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and abstract reasoning

During evolution, the prefrontal cortex most likely evolved by _______.

The expansion of neural progenitors in the anterior telencephalon

All of these answers

The reorganization of the frontal and parietal obes

An increase in the layers and thickness of the neocortex

The addition of new allocortex to the frontal lobe

The expansion of neural progenitors in the anterior telencephalon

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the connectome?

The connectome includes axons and neuronal cell bodies

The connectome contains association, commissural and projection tracts

The connectome is a map of gene expression

The connectome contains white and gray matter

The connectome is established during prenatal development

The connectome contains association, commissural and projection tracts

When the connectome was first discovered and described, the most surprising thing was that ___.

Axons from cortical neurons are myelinated

Neurons in cortical regions are connected to other cortical regions

All of these answers

So many connections exist between cortical regions

Cortical and subcortical regions are connected by axons

So many connections exist between cortical regions

Which of the following is NOT TRUE about the majority of large scale brain networks (LSBNs)?

LSBNs were initially discovered using fMRI

LSBNs include the default mode, salience and executive control networks

LSBNs connect different cortical area with different brainstem nuclei

LSBNs involve association tracts

LSBNs involve connections between gray matter regions by axons in white matter

LSBNs connect different cortical area with different brainstem nuclei

Which of the following is BEST DESCRIBES neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity can result from learning a new ability, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress

Neuroplasticity involves functional changes, while structural changes do not occur

Neuroplasticity and synaptic plasticity mean the same thing

Neuroplasticity involves neurogenesis in all regions of the brain

Neuroplasticity occurs in the developing brain but not in the adult brain

Neuroplasticity can result from learning a new ability, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress

An interesting feature of neuroplasticity is that it depends on ____, which means that the brain has the built in ability to change itself.

All of these answers

Synaptic activity

Switching neurotransmitter phenotype

Glucose/lactate, mitochondria and oxygen

Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

Synaptic activity

The most well studied forms of adult neuroplasticity are _____.

Axonal and dendritic outgrowth

LTP and neurogenesis

Dendritic spine formation and structural reorganization

Synaptogenesis and synaptic refinement

Cellular and circuit plasticity

LTP and neurogenesis

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES BDNF?

BDNF has been implicated in neuronal survival and synaptic plasticity

BDNF is a neurohormone secreted by the pituitary

BDNF activates both an ionotropic and metabotropic receptor

BDNF has been implicated in development but not in the adult brain

BDNF is a neurotransmitter

BDNF has been implicated in neuronal survival and synaptic plasticity

The synaptic plasticity called LTP in the hippocampus involves ______.

All of these answers

Transcription and translation

AMPA and NMDA receptors

Activation of the protein kinases CaMK, PKA, PKC and ERK/MAPK

Postsynaptic Ca2+ increases

All of these answers

The current hypothesis in clinical neuroscience research is that depression can involve ___.

Changes in neuroplasticity

Decreased monoamine levels

Chronic stress

Changes in glutamate transmission

All of these answers

All of these answers

Drugs in the categories of psychoplastogens and psychedelics are proposed to enhance _______ that can lead to improvement or restoration of function in several psychiatric and neurological disorders.

Blood flow

Formation of new brain regions

Inhibitory transmission

Immune responses

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity

To treat Alzheimer's disease, you have developed a new glutamate receptor antagonist that partially blocks AMPA and NMDA receptors. Unfortunately it was not appropriate for long term use since the side effects include changes in ____.

Perception

Cognition

Motor function

All of these answers

Memory

All of these answers

The neurotransmitter _____ is proposed to be involved in "nerdiness" and the "AHA moment"

Dopamine

You admit a patient who you think has had a stroke. Match the brain area where the stoke likely occurred to the symptoms. Each region is only used once.

Motor problems; decline in thinking skills; personality changes

Loss of vision; difficulties with visual perception

Difficulty understanding speech, loss of hearing; problems learning new information

Abnormal somatosensations; spatial disorientation; attentional neglect

Potential problems with: breathing, chewing, hearing and vision, balance, sensory changes

Potential problems with: arousal and pain regulation, sensory experiences, cognitive function, motor function

Frontal Lobe

Occipital Lobe

Temporal Lobe

Parietal Lobe

Brainstem

Thalamus

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about the function of the amygdala?

The amygdala is involved in autonomic responses related to survival, such as the fight-or-flight response

The amygdala is responsible for providing emotional content to long-term declarative memories

The amygdala releases emotion neurohormones into the blood

The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, including fear, anger, pleasure, and motivation

The amygdala is involved in the modulation of a variety of cognitive functions, such as attention and perception

The amygdala releases emotion neurohormones into the blood

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the anatomy of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus is part of the insular cortex, together with the anterior cingulate cortex

All of these answers

The hippocampus is a type of cerebral cortex called allocortex with only 3-4 layers

The hippocampus is a subcortical structure in the medial temporal lobe

The hippocampus is located in the lateral temporal lobe adjacent to the primary auditory cortex and Broca's area

The hippocampus is a type of cerebral cortex called allocortex with only 3-4 layers

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about the function of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus is involved in encoding short term memory

The hippocampus is involved in encoding long term declarative memory

The hippocampus is functionally part of the limbic system

The hippocampus is involved in encoding spatial memory

The hippocampus is involved in encoding emotional content of long term episodic memory

The hippocampus is involved in encoding short term memory

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the anatomy of the hypothalamus?

The hypothalamus is composed of multiple nuclei that form the anterior and posterior pituitary gland

The hypothalamus is a single structure located below the thalamus

The hypothalamus is a part of the limbic system and basal ganglia

All of these answers

The hypothalamus is considered part of the anterior brainstem

The hypothalamus is a single structure located below the thalamus

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about the function of the hypothalamus?

The function of the hypothalamus is integration and control of body functions for survival and reproduction

The hypothalamus controls the release of neurohormones from the pituitary into the blood

The hypothalamus plays a key role in the autonomic nervous system

The hypothalamus is involved in homeostatic control

The hypothalamus is part of the thalamus and relays information to the cortex

The hypothalamus is part of the thalamus and relays information to the cortex

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the anatomy of the brainstem?

The brainstem is considered the evolutionarily oldest and most primitive part of the brain

The brainstem is continuous with the thalamus (above) and the spinal cord (below)

The three regions of the brainstem are the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata

All of these answers

The brainstem contains both gray matter (nuclei) and white matter regions

All of these answers

Which of the following BEST DESCRIBES the inputs to and outputs from the brainstem?

The brainstem receives inputs from the reticular formation, which is located in the thalamus

The brainstem sends outputs to neurons in both subcortical and cortical regions

The brainstem relays all information between the cerebrum and spinal cord

All of these answers

The brainstem sends special sensory information directly to the sensory cortices

The brainstem sends outputs to neurons in both subcortical and cortical regions

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about the brainstem?

The brainstem contains nuclei for many cranial nerves

The brainstem contains glutamatergic, GABAergic, glycinergic, cholinergic and monoaminergic neurons

The brainstem contains nuclei that are essential for automatic, reflex and autonomic functions

The brainstem contains sensory and motor white matter tracts

The brainstem contains nuclei involved in motor and skill memory

The brainstem contains nuclei involved in motor and skill memory

All of the following brain regions are similar in that they contain many individual nuclei with different functions EXCEPT the ____.

Amygdala

Thalamus

Brainstem

Hippocampus

Hypothalamus

Hippocampus

Match the region of the prefrontal cortex with its functions.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)

Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC)

Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC)

Orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal cortex (OFC/vmPFC)

Working memory, decision making, planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and abstract reasoning

Processing a sense of self, integrating social impressions, theory of mind, morality judgments, empathy, decision making, altruism, fear and anxiety information processing, and top-down motor cortex inhibition

Motor inhibition and spatial attention

Impulse control and provides emotional and reward components to decision making, planned behavior, and memory

Although different regions of the prefrontal cortex are involved in specific functions, many regions are involved in _____ functions.

Memory

Survival

Executive

Sensory

Motor

Executive

During primate evolution, the prefrontal cortex most likely evolved by _______.

The reorganization of the frontal and parietal obes

An increase in the layers and thickness of the neocortex

All of these answers

The expansion of neural progenitors in the anterior telencephalon

The addition of new allocortex to the frontal lobe

The expansion of neural progenitors in the anterior telencephalon

All of the following parts of the brain are involved in emotion EXCEPT the _____.

Basal ganglia and nucleus accumbens

Cerebellum and prefrontal cortex

Amygdala and cingulate cortex

Anterior and posterior parietal cortex

Hippocampus and insula

Anterior and posterior parietal cortex

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about the connectome?

The connectome involves axons from cortical and subcortical neurons

The connectome is a map of the axonal connections among neurons

The connectome contains association, commissural and projection tracts

Development of the connectome begins during early postnatal period but extends through early adulthood

The connectome contains white matter and gray matter nuclei

The connectome contains white matter and gray matter nuclei

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity occurs in both the developing and adult brain

Neuroplasticity can result from learning a new ability, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress

Neuroplasticity involves functional, biochemical and structural changes in neurons and neuronal circuits

Neuroplasticity includes synaptic plasticity, circuit plasticity and in some regions, neurogenesis

Neuroplasticity has been shown to occur in the majority of brain regions

Neuroplasticity has been shown to occur in the majority of brain regions

Which of the following IS NOT TRUE about BDNF?

BDNF is released by primarily glial cells

BDNF is a neurotrophic factor

BDNF has been implicated in development and in the adult brain

BDNF activates a tyrosine kinase receptor called TrkB

BDNF has been implicated in neuronal survival and neuroplasticity

BDNF is released by primarily glial cells

Neuroplasticity depends on ____, which means that the brain has the ability to modify its own connections and circuits; the brain can change itself.

Switching neurotransmitter phenotype

Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

Synaptic activity

Glucose/lactate, mitochondria and oxygen

All of these answers

Synaptic activity

Glutamate receptor antagonists that partially blocks AMPA and NMDA receptors are not appropriate for long term use since the side effects include changes in ___.

All of these answers

Cognition and cognitive functions

Initiation and feedback control of movement

Sensation and sensory perception

Learning and memory

All of these answers

Drugs in the categories of ____ show substantial promise in the restoration of neuroplasticity to treat psychiatric and neurological disorders.

Antibiotics and immunomodulators

Depressants and relaxants

Psychostimulants and convulsants

Psychoplastogens and psychedelics

Antipsychotics and antihypertensives

Psychoplastogens and psychedelics