PSYC 1010 Exam 3

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

encoding

the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory; lower left frontal lobe is active

visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures; occipital lobe is active

organizational encoding

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items; upper left frontal lobe is active

mnemonics

encoding strategies that improve subsequent retrieval

survival encoding

the process of remembering information based on how relevant it is to personal survival

sensory memory

a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

echoic memory

a fast decaying store of auditory information

short term memory

a type of storage that holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

serial position effect

the observation that the first few items and the last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle

primacy effect

enhanced recall of the first few items in a list

recency effect

enhanced recall of the last few items in a list

chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters of chunks that are more easily held in short term memory

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

visuospatial sketchpad

temporarily holds and manipulates visual images, shapes, colors, and spatial layouts

phonological loop

temporarily holds and manages verbal and auditory information

episodic buffer

integrates visual and verbal information from the subsystems

central executive

coordinates the subsystems and the episodic buffer

long-term memory

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years; no known capacity

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

retrograde amnesia

the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

reconsolidation

memories must be consolidated again after recall because they become vulnerable to disruption

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a process whereby repeated communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

engram

the enduring physical change in the brain that is produced by a particular experience

retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

encoding specificity principle

a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

state-dependent retrieval

the process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

transfer-appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likley to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

retrieval-induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

explicit memory

when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences

implicit memory

past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things

priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

collaborative memory

people remember in groups

collaborative inhibition

the same number of individuals working together recall fewer items than they would, in total, on their own

transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

retroactive interference

situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

proactive interference

situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

childhood amnesia/ infantile amnesia

why we have no memories from the first few years of life

absentmindedness

a lapse in attention that results in memory failure

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

memory misattribution

assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source

source memory

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

bias

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

persistence

the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget

flashbulb memory

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

self-report

a method in which people provide subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview

minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

a well researched clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems

projective tests

designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals’ personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli

rorschach inkblot test

a projective technique in which respondents’ inner thoughts and feelings are believed to be revealed by analysis of their responses to a set of unstructured inkblots

thematic apperception test (TAT)

a projective technique in which respondents’ underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world are believed to be revealed through analysis of the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people

trait

a relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way

the big five

the traits of the five-factor personality model: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism; OCEAN

psychodynamic approach

regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness- motives that can produce emotional disorders

id

the part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and agressive drives

superego

the mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority

ego

the component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life’s practical demands; mediator between id and superego

anxiety

governs the dynamics between the id, superego, and ego; an unpleasant feeling that arises when unwanted thoughts or feelings occur

defense mechanisms

unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce the anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses

repression

removing painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind; “motivated forgetting”

rationalization

supplying a reasonable-sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behavior to conceal (mostly from oneself) one’s underlying motives or feelings

reaction formation

unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of their opposite

projection

attributing one’s own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group

regression

reverting to an immature behavior or earlier stage of development, a time when things felt more secure, to deal with internal conflict and perceived threat

displacement

shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative

identification

dealing with feelings of threat and anxiety by unconsciously taking on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or better able to cope

Freud’s psychosexual stages

propose that adult personality is formed through childhood experiences as the libido (sexual energy) focuses on different erogenous zones of the body

sublimation

channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities

oral

the stage in which experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed

anal

the stage in which experience is dominated by the pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces and urine, and toilet training

phallic

the stage in which experience is dominated by the pleasure, conflict, and frustration associated with the phallic–genital region, as well as coping with powerful incestuous feelings of love, hate, jealousy, and conflict

latency

the stage in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills

genital

the time for the coming together of the mature adult personality with a capacity to love, work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner

self-actualizing tendency

the human motive toward realizing our inner potential

hierarchy of needs

a model of essential human needs arranged according to their priority, in which basic physiological and safety needs must be satisfied before a person can afford to focus on higher level psychological needs

self-actualization

the need to be good, fully alive, and to find meaning in life

flow

a mental state of energized focus created by engagement in tasks that match one’s abilities

existential approach

a school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death

angst

the anxiety of fully being

the social-cognitive approach

views personality in terms of how a person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them

person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

personal constructs

dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences

outcome expectancies

a person’s assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior

locus of control

a person’s tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment

self-concept

a person’s explicit knowledge of their own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics

self narrative

a story that we tell about ourselves

self-verification

the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept

self-esteem

the extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self

self-serving bias

people tend to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures

narcissism

a grandiouse view of the self, combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others