ch 14, 19, 13

how do blood cells form?

from the division and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells in red bone marrow

what is hematopoiesis?

the process of blood cell formation

describe a red blood cell

a RBC is a bi-conclave disc that has no nucleus and very few organelles

how much of the RBC volume consist of hemoglobin

1/3

how does the Bi-conclave shape of RBCs make possible its function?

it increases the surface area through which gases can diffuse and place the cell membrane close to the hemoglobin. it also prolongs lifespan by providing flexibility

what is the function of hemoglobin?

transports oxygen and some carbon dioxide through the blood

what metabolic pathway do erythrocytes use to produce ATP?

glycolysis to produce ATP since they lack mitochondira

Erythropoiesis

Red Blood Cell formation

Where are RBC Produced in fetus?

yolk sac, liver, spleen

Where are red blood cells produced in adults?

red bone marrow

how does a red blood cell change as it matures?

erythroblast→reticulocyte→erythrocyte

How is RBC production controlled?

regulated by the hormone erythropoietin via negative feedback mechanism. Oxygen deficiency causes secretion from kidneys

what is polycythemia

excessive increase in red blood cells

what is anemia

a disorder in which there is an abnormal reduction in the number of RBCs or in the amount of hemoglobin in each RBC

what is a granulocyte?

leukocyte with granular cytoplasm

name the granulocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

what is the most numerous leukocyte

neutrophils

what is the first white blood cell to arrive at the site of infection?

neutrophils

What is the role of Eosinophils?

they kill certain parasites and help control inflammation and allergic reactions

What is the least common leukocyte?

basophils

what two chemicals are released by basophils

heparin and histamine

what is the role of heparin released by basophils?

inhibit blood clotting

what is the role of the chemical histamine released by basophils?

promotes inflammation by stimulating vasodialtion

what two leukocytes play roles in allergic reactions?

eosinophils and basophils

what is the largest white blood cell?

monocytes

Main role of monocytes?

turn into macrophages after leaving bloodstream where the lysosomes in them help break down bacteria, dead cells, and debris

which is the smallest of the white blood cells?

lymphocytes

what wbc type accounts for most of circulating leukocytes?

lymphocytes

what are the major types of lymphocytes?

B and T cells

Function of t-cells?

directly attack microorganisms, tumor cells, and transplanated cells

function of b-cells?

b-cells produce antibodies

what white blood cells are the most active phagocytes?

monocytes and neutrophils

How do megakaryocytes create platelets?

cellular extension protrude into porous cells where they tear and release fragments of themselves aka platelets in response to thrombopoietin

what vital role do platelets play?

help form and stabilize blood clots by releasing thromboxane and serotonin to contract the smooth muscle in the wall of broken blood vessels

what chemical do platelets release?

thromboxane A2

functions of plasma?

transporting nutrients, gases, hormones, vitamins, & regulating fluid and electrolyte balance while maintaining favorable pH

what are the three main types of plasma proteins?

albumins, globulins, fibrinogen

what is colloid osmotic pressure?

pulling force exerted by large proteins in the blood that draws water back into blood stream

what plasma protein is the most determinant of the colloid osmotic pressure?

albumins as they’re too large to filter through capillaries but create pressure that draws water into the capillaries

functions of globulins?

can further subdivide into alpha, beta, and gamma globulins that transport lipid and fat soluble vitamins

Fibrinogen

largest plasma molecule and functions in blood coagulation by converting to fibrin

which globulin functions in immunity?

gamma globulins

which gases are in plasma?

oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen

what nutrients are in plasma?

amino acids, simple sugars, lipids, and nucleotides

what are nonprotein nitrogenous substances in plasma

amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, and creatinine

why does kidney disease increase blood concentration of nonprotein nitrogenous substances?

because kidneys normally remove these substances from the blood and excrete them via urine

what are plasma electrolytes?

sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate ions

among the electrolytes found in plasma, the most abundant ions are _________ and __________

sodium and chloride

what electrolyte is most important in maintaining pH of plasma?

bicarbonate ions

how are plasma electrolytes derived?

from diet through absorption from small intestine

what are the three main steps of hemostatic mechanisms?

vascular spams, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation

what is a vascular spasm?

rapid contraction of smooth muscle in the blood vessel walls, causing blood loss to lesson almost immediately

how do platelet plugs form?

platelets stick to exposed collagen fibers in connective tissue in underlying endothelial lining, this forms platelet plug

how does blood coagulation start?

triggered when blood contacts damages blood vessel walls that activates factors that favor cosgulation

what triggers the extrinsic clotting mechanism?

release of biochemicals from broken blood vessel or damaged tissue triggers

what triggers intrinsic clotting mechanisms?

blood contact with foreign surfaces in the absence of tissue damage

which clotting factor is converted to fibrin?

firbinogen is converted to fibrin

what is a thrombus?

a clot that forms abnormally in a blood vessel

what is an embolus?

blood clot that has broken off from the wall of the blood vesse; and is being carried in the blood

how would atherosclerosis promote the formation of blood clots?

its the accumulation of fatty deposits on the blood vessel walls may initiate inappropriate clot formation

what is the function of antithrombin?

inactivates thrombin by binding to it and blocking it from converting fibrinogen into active fibrin

how does heparin prevent blood clot formation?

interferes with the synthesis of prothrombin activator, prevents thrombin from activating fibrinogen and promotes the removal of the thrombin by antithrombin and fibrin absorption

what statement best describes a macrophage?

originally a monocyte that has migrated into the tissues

what percentage of plasma is made up of water?

92%

what is an antigen?

any molecule that triggers an immune response

what is an antibody?

a b-cell protein that is produced to fight non-self antibodies

if a person has antigen A and antigen B what is there blood type?

AB blood type

if a person has NEITHER antigen A or antigen B what is their blood type?

O blood type

if a pregnant woman and her fetus are different blood types what will happen?

agglutination will occur as antibodies of one blood type will react with antigen of the same type during labor

what blood type is considered a universal recipient?

AB blood as they lack anti-A and anti-B antibodies

what blood type is universal donor?

O blood type as it lacks antigen A and B

what is the most prevalent antigen in the RH blood group?

antigen D

what makes a person positive when it comes to blood typing?

when Rh antigens are present

what makes a person Rh negative?

when they do not have Rh antigens

where do anti-Rh antibodies form?

only in Rh-negative individuals in response to presence of RBC with Rh antigens

what are 2 ways Rh incompatibility arise?

if Rh neg person receives transfusion from Rh pos. and if Rh neg mother gives birth to Rh positive kids twice, first fetus will be unaffected but second fetus blood will attack RBC of fetus

what are the formed elements of the blood?

thrombocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

what is the main function of blood?

to transport nutrients

what are plasma proteins?

fibrinogen, prothrombin, and albumins

what are the most common leukocytes?

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils. monocytes, lymphocytes

what is hematocrit?

percentage of erythrocytes in whole blood sample

what blood type has anti- B antibodies?

blood type A

what blood type has anti- A antibodies?

blood type B

what blood type has both anti A and anti B antibodies?

blood type O

what blood type does NOT have either anti A or anti B antibodies

blood type AB

what is respiration?

process in which an organism produces energy. It involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between atmosphere and body cells

what organs make up the upper respiratory tract?

nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx

what organs make up the lower respiratory tract?

trachea, bronchial tree, lungs

what is the function of the mucous membrane in the nasal cavity?

mucous traps dust and pathogens and cilia move the mucus to the pharynx and then stomach to be destroyed

what is the purpose of cilia on the cells that line the nasal cavity?

they sweep trapped microorganisms to pharynx to be swallowed and then destroyed in the stomach

where are the sinuses located?

they are air filler cavities with in the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary bones and open into the nasal cavity

what are the functions of the sinuses?

reduce the weight of the skull and serve as resonant chambers that impact voice

what part of the respiratory tract is shared with the alimentray canal?

the pharynx, specifally the oropharynx and laryngopharynx

where are the respiratory areas of the brain?

located in the brainstem, scattered in the medulla oblongata and in the pons

what is tidal volume?

volume of air moved into or out of the lungs during a respiratory cycle (500mL)

what is inspiratory reserve volume?

max volume of air that can be inhaled at the end of a resting inspiration 3000 mL

what is expiratory reserve volume?

max volume of air that can be exhaled at the end of a resting expiration 1,100mL

what is residual volume?

volume of air that remains in the lungs even after max expiratory effort (1200 mL)