PSYC1100 - Final Exam

what are models of communication and how many are there

models of communication are sets of ideas of how people think we communicate

there are 5 main models of communication

the linear model

first developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.

most linear models follow the components of sender, message, channel, and receiver.

it is important to note that environmental noise can influence how the message is received (ie. loud pub/can’t hear person (sender)

positive and negative of the linear models

positive → good at explaining one way communication styles (ie. and email)

negative → fails when trying to explain more complex communication (ie. face to face communication)

the interactional model

takes into account that communication involves interaction

like linear models, it proposes that communication involves a sender, receiver, channels, and environmental noise.

this model also proposes that the receiver can send a message back (feedback) via the same or a different channel

negative of the interactional model

treats communication like a simple back and forth. This is unrealistic in the real world, as communication is messier

the transactional model

proposes that people can communicate simultaneously

people in communication can act as both senders and receivers at the same time.

like the previous models, they’re communicating via a variety of channels and their communication can be affected by environmental noise

however, they’re sending and receiving messages simultaneously and through the communication to create a shared meaning about the world

Westley and Maclean’s Model

this has the same components as the other models, however it also breaks down where the noise and subjectivity in message interpretation comes from

it can be applied to both interpersonal and mass communication

in this case the channel can serves its own function, controlling or changing the types of messages being sent (ie, a message sent through snapchat is different to one sent through email)

the channel can also be a gatekeeper (ie. when media interprets a message and redelivers it in the way it wants to)

the models takes into account that the experiences of the sender within the environment can also influence the types of message they want to send

it also proposes that personal characteristics of the sender may influence the type of message they want to send and how the receiver interprets the message

Dance’s Helical Spiral

proposes that communication is a never ending expanding spiral

it takes a developmental perspective, proposing that when we are children we are very limited by the words and communication skills we have. As we grow and have more experiences our communication becomes more complex, like a spiral, and the same idea could go for conversations and relationships

this mode isn’t very useful as its metaphorical and hard to test.

what does the presence of noise and ambiguity mean in conversation

people need to know what they want to say, and how to say it, and how their message is going to be received.

What did Dan Goleman theorise

emotional intelligence was important in determining life success

argued that there are 5 dimensions of emotional intelligence

what are Goleman’s 5 dimensions of emotional intelligence

1. self-awareness → our capacity to understand our own emotions, strengths, and limitations

2. self-regulation → our capacity to regulate and manage our own emotions and their effects on our behaviour

3. motivation → our capacity to learn and self-improve

4. empathy → our capacity to understand other people’s emotions/reactions

5. social skills → our capacity to interact and maintain our relationships with others

what did Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey propose

introduced a 12 item scale for a performance based measure of EQ.

the scale measured 4 branches:

1. perceiving emotion

2. assimilating emotion

3. understanding emotion

4. managing emotion

what did Troth, Jordan, and Lawrence propose

measured EQ in communicating in a team/group work setting

they found that people who were higher in emotional intelligence were rated as more effective and appropriate communicators by their team members.

but only communication effectiveness went on to predict team cohesiveness

what is emotional intelligence associated with

1. relationship satisfaction

2. job performance and satisfaction

3. clinical competence

EQ and fixedness

preliminary studies suggest EQ is not fixed. It can be increased

Mayer, Caruso, and Savoy study on EQ and intelligence

measured whether EQ is a construct of intelligence

found that the subscales were inconsistently related

they felt that the dimensions of IQ might not tap into a general factor of emotional intelligence

and when taking personality into account, EQ is only weakly related to life satisfaction

social skills

social skills describe our ability to successfully navigate our social environment and effectively build relationships with others

What did Ronald Reggio propose and explain

social skills fall into 7 broad categories:

1. emotional expressivity → our capacity to spontaneously and accurately express one’s emotional state and attitudes

2. emotional sensitivity → our ability to decode and understand others’ non-verbal communications. Relates to empathy and emotional identification in EQ

3. emotional control → our ability to control what emotions you display (ie. appropriately laughing when needed)

4. social expressivity → verbal skills and our ability to engage others in interaction

5. social sensitivity → our ability to understand others’ verbal communication and what is appropriate in social situations

6. social control → our ability to control ourselves in social situations (a self-presentation skill)

7. social manipulation → an index of how often we skillfully use social skills to manipulate people to achieve an end. This is related to a personality variable termed machiavellianism (not always negative)

what did Riggio propose about these 7 dimensions

all 7 social skills are distinct. They are not all positively related to each other. Not all the skills are related to each other either

and he also found that emotional and social expressivity significantly predicted liking (even after controlling for attractiveness)

what has recent research found about social skills

1. positive emotional expressivity is particularly important

2. self-rated emotional expressivity is readily detected by peers

3. social skills and communication skills are discussed interchangeably

what does Brownell argue about communication

communication is listener defined; a message means whatever a receiver thinks it does

communication underpins all of human communication

what are the 4 main reasons communication is hard

1. preoccupation → we often think about ourselves, our own problems, or other ideas. We can drift off while others are speaking

2. prejudgement → we often think we know what someone is going to sat or what they really mean. This stops us from listening to their actual words or ideas

3. reactivity → we don’t just listen to words. We listen for emotional content, for the way people are saying things. We often react to the emotional, rather than the message itself

4. lack of motivation/effort → we often aren’t motivated to listen or put in the effort to listen (ie. do you want to listen?)

what are the six types of non-listening behaviours humans engage in

1. pseudolistening → we may pretend to listen but we don’t actually. We may be there in body but we are not paying attention (ie. playing on our phones while talking to friends)

2. monopolising → we may focus the conversation continually on ourselves, rather than our conversation partner. We may use tricks and verbal gymnastics to turn the conversation back to ourselves

3. selective listening → we may only attend to a fraction of the conversation. We focus on the parts we find interesting. We are motivated to hear what we want to hear (ie. when fighting you may pick out just a little of their conversation)

4. defensive listening → we may selectively listen for attacks, criticism, and hostility. This usually happens when we’re conversing with someone who has a different opinion to us. They are always willing to take offence, irrespective of the conversation

5. ambushing → not listening to hear but listening to find weak spots in people’s arguments. We may be looking to criticise what others are saying

6. literal listening → we may listen to all the words being said, but not the emotional tone with which those words are said. This results in misinterpretation.

what is projection bias

we assume people feel the same way we do and thus people project their own thoughts and feelings onto others.

people make assumptions about how others feel and think. People often incorrectly assume others’ thoughts and feelings mirror their own internal states

projection bias happens in many domains of life → negative outcomes are unfavourable

what did Kenny and Acitelli find

projection bias in romantic relationships is apparent → people assumed their partners had the same feelings towards the relationship as they did

positive vs negative projection bias

when projection bias is positive it leads to relationship satisfaction and better relationship outcomes

when projection bias is negative it leads to relationship dissatisfaction and worse relationship outcomes

what are three main ways to show you are listening to someone

1. affirmatives → saying ok, great etc.

2. paraphrasing → shown in Wager, Castle, and Emmett (2010), should say ‘so you’re saying…’

3. active listening → this involves paraphrasing, asking questions when appropriate, and maintaining moderate-high non-verbal communication. People feel more understood and satisfied with the conversation using active listening paradigms.

what are the 5 main conversational skills

1. rewarding and reinforcing

2. questioning

3. reflecting

4. self-disclosure

5. explaining

rewarding and reinforcing

we often talk to others to get rewards.

rewards can be objective or psychological → people like being rewarded in conversation (ie. when their conversation partner praises them)

these skills demonstrate listening and makes us an attractive communication partner

praise is only good though if it is appropriate and genuine → false interest and compliments lead to being more disliked

people also refrain from praising others out of fear they will be perceived as over the top, made to feel vulnerable, or embarrassed

what are reinforcers

particular form of reward where we encourage someone and show them we approve or want them to keep going (ie. verbal or non-verbal)

this is quite indistinguishable from rewards

questioning

questions are at the heart of most interpersonal communication

displays interest

there are two main types of questions:

1. close questions → elicit a single piece of information (ie. yes or no)

2. open questions → allow for a greater explanation

pausing before and after questions gets the best response

reflecting

involves paraphrasing, repeating, and reflecting on some information that they have given you in a conversation

this can result in self-disclosure

best skill for therapists

self-disclosure

sharing information about the self to others

can be objective, factual information or can be info about our internal thoughts and feelings

meta-analyses indicate people who engage in intimate disclosures tend to be liked more and viceversa

however, intimate self-disclosure to strangers is seen as more maladjusted and inappropriate than the same disclosures to friends

explaining

it is important for us to get our messages across clearly

we give information about what we think, know, or feel

what is reciprocity

the act of returning a favour or action with a similar favour or action

reciprocity is at the root of society → it facilitate effective functioning and cooperation among humans

it is universal and hardwired

what is the norm of reciprocity

the norm of reciprocity is the expectancy to reciprocate and to expect others to do the same

what does Alvin Gouldner propose about the norm of reciprocity

this norm is all about survival → it ensures a cycle of helping and mutual care

what is a social norm and the two types

a social norm denotes appropriate conduct for individuals and groups

the two types are:

1. descriptive norms → what people do

2. injunctive norms → what people ought to do

the power of norms is so strong we feel an idiotic obligation

what does Linda Molm highlight about reciprocity

it can be:

1. spontaneous and unspoken

2. negotiated (ie. if you do this i will)

people like spontaneous reciprocity more as it feels more authentic

what did Gouldner argue about the negative norm of reciprocity

during conflict the norm of reciprocity is at play

we feel driven to harm someone who has harmed us

the norm of reciprocity affects everyone, which means you can set the tone of an argument

what did Youngs (1986) find

studied negative norm of reciprocity

found that when participants were faced with a partner who threatened or punished them, they responded by increasing the amount they threatened and punished back

what did Paleari et al (2010) find

looked at negative norm of reciprocity in couples

found that when one partner used avoidance and aggression the other partner was more likely to as well

this resulted in ineffective arguing and relationship dissatisfaction

what did Park and Antonioni (2007) find

looked at negative norm but with roommates

they found that people who collaborated more had roommates who reported using more collaborative means and vice versa

what were Jess Albert’s 5 main ways we dodge criticism

1. justify → provide an excuse or explanation for events. This may seem positive. However, it implies that the person being criticised should not be held accountable. This is most common

2. deny → saying that the criticism is wrong. Refusing to take in the criticism

3. counter-complaint → level the criticism back at the critic. Changing the focus from their own behaviour to partner’s behaviour

4. pass →fail to respond to the criticism. Ignoring or avoiding the criticism

5. agreeing → people who acknowledged the criticism and its legitimacy. Usually apologise or make plans to improve. This is the most desired response. However, we are less likely to recognise wrongdoings in ourselves than in others

first responses to criticism is important with denial likely to lead into and argument. Criticism may be warranted or unwarranted,

what can criticism lead to

criticism is negative feedback and can lead to:

1. guilt

2. embarrassment

3. shame

4. anger

why do people struggle with criticism

criticism threatens our face

criticism is threatening → implies that something is wrong with the target, their behaviour, or relationship

criticism can hurt even when accompanied with positive cues (ie. a disclaimer)

before criticising establish whether your criticism is important/valid

how do you deliver criticism

1. use ‘I’ statement → using only you statements positions blame on the other person. It does not acknowledge you as an agent within the argument. This was shown in Kubany et al (1992) who looked at this technique in students, and Simmons et al (2005) who looked at this technique in marital relationships

2. taking time to recognise your own perspective and partners perspective. This is shown in the study of Rogers et al. (2018)

what does face mean in psychology and how criticism relates

face is used to describe people’s sense of morality, authority, and honour

criticism presents as a positive face threat because it hurts things we values and feel positive about, and undermines our desire to be accepted, respected, and valued by others.

criticism also threatens our relationship face (we want our relationship to be strong, and equally valued)

and criticism presents a negative face threat because it makes us look bad in the eyes of others, and it exposes us and constrains our choices

what did Cupach and Carson (2002) find

we must relay criticism to save face as much as possible

found that criticism that presented face threat tended to be associated with worse. outcomes (ie. anger). They also found how best to criticise someone

what were Cupach and Carson (2002) best ways to criticise someone

1. target of criticism → split into behavioural complaints (ie. what they are doing within the relationship or how the relationship is going) and dispositional complaints (criticising someone about who they are as a person)

2. privacy of complaint → public and private. Private criticism lowers face threat

3. be fair in your criticism

4. tone of criticism → criticism usually comes across as a negative tone. Criticism that damages our face is that which is impolite or insensitive (ie. yelling or using negative language)

5. clarity of criticism → be clear about your complaint

6. authority → are you qualified to criticise this person. Do you share the same issue

7. motive → are you doing this because it is necessary. Is it benefitting both of you

how does criticism differ across cultures

criticism differs across cultures in terms of independent and interdependent self-construal

what did Markus and Kitayama (1991) find

found that Western cultures have an independent view of the self

non-western cultures view the self as interdependent

independent and interdependent self construal

independent → people see themselves as separate/distinct. The goal is to discover what is unique and special about the self. You strive for individualism/autonomy

interdependent → people see the themselves in light of social relationships. Social context determines behaviour. Described as collectivist/relational

how does independent/interdependent self construal relate to criticism

independent → value directness, expressing themselves, achieving their own goals, saying what is on their mind

interdependent → value belonging/fitting in, indirect communication, working towards social harmony. More concerned to protect others’ faces compared to independent cultures

what did Chen et al (2009) find

found that western cultures are more likely to demonstrate the negative norm of reciprocity to others/friends compared to non-western cultures who give the benefit of the doubt (especially for close others as they are seen as part of the self)

what did Takeuchi (2001) find

we also deliver criticism differently depending on the culture.

non-western students said they would hide dissatisfaction as opposed to western students who would give a direct comment/constructive suggestions

however, this may be due to the fact that Japan has a much more distinct power hierarchy between teacher/student than the US

what did Hess suggest

people’s pupils expand when they view something they like

dilation, in addition to liking, might also display shock

this was also shown where people’s pupils dilated when viewing food they preferred

large pupils should be a strong and honest sign of attraction and should thus, be favoured

when we see people with dilated pupils our pupils dilate in response

and;

heterosexual men perceived women with large pupils as more:

1. attractive

2. happy

3. friendly

what did Kret and De Dreu (2019) find

participants trusted and were attracted to the partner with dilated pupils more than the constricted pupils

they invested more with the person with dilated pupils

what did Kret, Tomonaga, and Matsuzara (2014) find

this pupil dilation trend is also evident in chimps (pupil dilation mimicry is evident)

what did William James find

there are four communicative categories of postures:

1. approach → attentive posture, characterised by leaning forward

2. withdrawal → characterised by drawing back or moving away. Interpreted to be negative behaviour (ie. refusal, disgust)

3. expansion → characterised by expanded chest, erect, or backward leaning posture in the trunk, raised shoulders, erect head. Associated with pride, arrogance, and disdain

4. contraction → communicates depression, being downcast. Characterised by a bowed head, dropped shoulders, sunken chest.

what did Moachotka (1960s) find

people with closed arm posture are seen as cold, shy, or passive. And that we often cross our arms more with people we dislike. We also turn our shoulders away from those we dislike

posture is also context dependent. It means different things in different circumstances

what did Gurney et al (2017) find

people sitting/standing in a strong or neutral pose were seen as:

1. more confident

2. more approachable and professional

3. better paid

there is also evidence that we mimic non-verbal behaviours of the people we’re with, including posture

touch as a non-verbal and importance

touch signals affection, support, or unity

physical touch is also related to relationship strength (ie. cuddling)

touch can communicate emotions and can carry a persuasive message (ie. we will aquiesce more readily to someone who touches us)

part of the power of touch comes down to how our bodies react to it → touch triggers the release of oxytocin (neurotransmitter associated with love). This bonds us more with the person we’re touching (even strangers)

incidental touch

incidental touch is powerful

studies show men who are touched more when playing economic games tend to cooperate more

Hertenstein (2006) findings

people could decode anger 60% of the time and fear 50% of the time, just from hand gestures.

what are the different types of touch associated with emotions

1. love → stroking, interlocking fingers

2. anger → hitting, squeezing

3. fear → trembling

4. sympathy → patting

we use touch in specific, delineated ways to communicate our emotions

physiognomy

assessing people’s worth or personalities by their facial characteristics

this is a pseudoscience

Dion et al (1972) findings

people rate attractive men and women as being more sincere, warm, and competent, and happier

Nisbett and Wilson (1979) findings

invented the term ‘halo effect’ → whereby a good characteristic can create a halo, making that person seem very physically attractive. The reverse is also true

specifically, beauty casts a glow over people, artificially inflating how moral we see them as. We assume that attractiveness communicates this information, and this pattern emerges early in age

however, we also rate attractive people as lacking integrity and modesty

what are the caveats to the halo effect

1. most research is based on first impressions and snap judgements

2. the effects are relatively small (they can reverse pretty fast)

thin slice work theory

we often only have a few seconds to decide whether we like someone. So we use these seconds pretty carefully, forming detailed assumptions about what people are llike through observing

we are pretty accurate in these assumptions

what did Ambday describe thin-slice observations as

a brief excerpt of expressive behaviours, lasting no longer than 5 minutes. This had to be dynamic (ie. no photos)

what is the focus during thin slice observations

1. movement

2. style of talking

3. tone of voice

4. not content

we consensually take communicative meaning from thin slices

what did Tackett et al (2016) find

in children/uni students, they could tell which children’s personalities were whose based on thin-slice recordings

however, thin-slice judgements are not always super accurate (just better than chance)

what did Ekman propose

that facial expression of the basic emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, and surprise) could be recognised cross culturally

there seems to be an inbuilt, cross-cultural nonverbal display of emotion. The two hardest ones to pick up are fear and surprise

what emotion is appropriate to display and when can change across cultures. He described display rules that govern when and how people are expected to nonverbally communicate

what did Matsumoto show

that within one cultural context, the ethnic groups we belong to can shape how appropriate it is for us to display certain emotions (ie. display rules across black, asian, white, and hispanic groups differ)

what did Sauter et al (2010) show

we also communicate non-verbals such as tone and body language differently.

negative emotions were quite universal, but positive emotions were displayed quite varyingly

eye-gaze and eye contact also differs cross-culturally

what did Tannen describe female communication stereotypes as

stereotype that women talk a lot → this is a persisting stereotype even now

we have a bunch of assumptions about how men and women communicate and we read communicative messages based on gender

what did Briton and Hall (1995) find

found that participants expected women to interact with people at closer distances than men (ie. smile more, laugh more, use hands, and be more expressive)

whereas men were expected to be more dysfluent (ie, stammering, um and ahing)

what did Jesperson (1922) state

men use slang, puns, and employ profanity. Whereas, women do not

what did Sandra Bean argue

she argued that men and women are assigned prescriptive sex roles more broadly which influence how we or are expected to communicate (ie. femininity is sympathetic, submissive, or affectionate)

what did Von Hippel et al (2011) find

women are keenly aware of feminine stereotypes. And when concerned they will be judged based on that stereotype, they change their behaviour, having negative consequences

this is known as stereotype threat

what are the three aspects of speech we develop from childhood

1. talkativeness → general communicativeness competence (ie. chattiness)

2. affiliative speech → speech used to maintain connection with others (ie. asking questions)

3. assertive speech → language used to influence others (ie. disagreeing, directive statements)

how do these three aspects differ between girls and boys

1. girls → more talkative, more affiliative speech

2. boys → more assertive speech

what did Leaper and Smith find

1. girls are more talkative to adults but equal to peers

2. gender difference is largest in children aged 3 or younger

3. affiliative speech is different mostly in general measures and responsiveness

4. effect sizes in gender differences are usually quite tiny

5. gender differences are also context dependent

what did Hyde (1984) find

found a larger effect size around boys showing more aggression than girls

however, within gender variation was greater than between gender variation, limiting conclusions

what did Gray (1992) propose

proposed that men focus on finding solutions and giving advice and need to feel respected

whereas women want to feel heard and cherished and focus on bonding

essentially, we go into communication with different goals and needs

What did Tannen (1990) and Michaud and Warner (1997) suggest

suggested that men and women respond differently to trouble talk:

1. mend give advice, assert authority, make jokes

2. women offer sympathy

however, effect sizes were small and more within gender differences

what did Hyde and Lim (1988) show

there was no major gender difference in vocabulary or linguistic skills

they also suggested that gender differences in verbal ability may be disappearing with social pressures.

women also score higher on agreeableness than men

what are the two theories that suggest where gender differences arise from and explain them

1. nurture → men and women are socialised differently. Men and women have been socially pressured to communicate differently (ie. by parents, society etc)

2. nature → evolution has pressured men and women to communicate differently. There are hardwired differences between men and women that shape their communication

this is important because meta-analyses consistently demonstrate gender differences (even if tiny)

what is the social role theory (evidence to nurture theory)

posits that men and women take on different jobs.

labor is divided in a relatively standard way between men and women as a function of their social power and physical strength.

this may show how society pressures gender differences as due to these jobs, we generate gender role stereotypes and beliefs. And are then forces onto the masses (socialisation and reinforcement)

gender role behaviour is modelled and reinforced throughout lifespan. So strongly socialised that they appear to be stable and innate

we also socially train women and men to behave certain ways (ie. women we are supervisors are penalised for expressing anger)

explain the evolution history theory (evidence to nature theory)

men and women have faced distinct pressures and these pressures have led to the gender difference in behaviour (ie. women must give birth resulting in more communal women to survive and pass genes

there is also a lot of cross-cultural consistency in gender stereotypes that speaks to biological or evolved roots

if evolution has played a part in gender differences it does not mean they are fixed, it is malleable

what is the naturalistic fallacy

the assumption that what is natural is good → this is not true and gender stereotypes can be challenged

we are a function of both nature and nurture

what are the two different types of mate preferences

1. stated preferences → who we think we want and like. Who we tell our friends, families, or ourselves we want. We get as this by asking people to rate how important different traits are when selecting mates

2. revealed preferences → who we actually want. What we do as opposed to what we say. We measure this by showing people profiles of potential mates or getting people to meet in speed dating studies

What did Murphy et al (2015) show

the more people seemed confident in their profiles, the more people saw them as romantically desirable

if someone is confident we think they must have something to be confident about. If someone lacks confidence, we think they have a reason to lack confidence

what was a negative that Murphy et al (2015) found

also found that confidence was correlated with arrogance and participants we less likely to approach potential partners if there was a rival they viewed as confidence

essentially, you need to display confidence without arrogance

what evidence aligned with the social role theory do women/men use to seem attractive

1. women tend to emphasise they are conformists

2. men make efforts to stand out

what did Hornsey et al (2015) find

revealed preferences in both men and women preferred people who communicated non-conformity. however, we don’t want someone too non-conformist → we like a mix of both

and this is cross cultural too

what did Lee et al (2014) find

men and women preferred intelligence profiles (for long or short term dating)

intelligence is communicated through words, ideas, and conversation

what did Farrelly et al (2016) find

in stated mate preferences, kindness is usually rated first.

and women rated altruistic men as more attractive

essentially, kindness is essential