Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte

was a military leader who rose to power after the Revolution and became emperor in 1804. He spread French laws and reforms across Europe but also ruled as an authoritarian.

Plebiscites and Napoleonic Legitimacy

A plebiscite is a public vote used to approve a political decision. Napoleon used plebiscites to make his rule appear supported by the French people.

Napoleon as Revolutionary Reformer and Authoritarian Ruler

Napoleon kept some revolutionary changes, such as legal equality and ending feudal privileges. However, he also limited political freedom and concentrated power in himself.

Napoleonic Code

The Napoleonic Code of 1804 created a standardized legal system based on equality before the law and property rights. It spread French legal ideas across Europe.

Enlightenment

was an intellectual movement of the 1600s–1700s that emphasized reason, science, liberty, and natural rights. Its ideas influenced the French Revolution.

Romanticism

Romanticism developed around the late 1700s and early 1800s and emphasized emotion, nature, culture, and history. It helped encourage nationalism.

Principle of Legitimacy

traditional monarchs should be restored after Napoleon. Conservatives believed this would bring stability.

Balance of Power

meant making sure no single country became powerful enough to dominate Europe. It was an important goal of the Congress of Vienna.

Conservatism

supported tradition, monarchy, religion, and stability. Conservatives generally opposed sudden revolutionary change.

Liberalism

supported individual rights, constitutional government, freedom, and equality before the law. Liberals wanted limits on government power.

Nationalism

is the belief that people who share a common culture, language, or history should have political unity. It became very powerful in the 19th century.

July Revolution of 1830

overthrew Charles X in France. It showed that liberal and revolutionary ideas were still challenging monarchies after 1815.

Louis-Philippe and the July Monarchy

became king after the July Revolution and ruled from 1830–1848. His government favored the wealthy middle and upper classes and eventually faced growing opposition.

Socialism

developed in the 19th century as a response to industrialization and economic inequality. Socialists wanted greater economic equality and better conditions for workers.

Anarchism

rejected centralized government and believed society could function through voluntary cooperation. It became an important radical ideology during the 19th century.

John Stuart Mill and On Liberty

John Stuart Mill published On Liberty in 1859. He argued that individuals should have freedom of thought, speech, and lifestyle as long as they do not harm others.