BIOS213 - Human Systems Anatomy

What does the term anatomy mean?

Study of internal/external body structures and their relationships.

What does gross anatomy examine?

Structures observable with the unaided eye.

What is surface anatomy?

Study of external features, projections and landmarks.

What is regional anatomy?

Study of structures within a specific body region.

What is systemic anatomy?

Study of whole body systems throughout the body.

What is microscopic anatomy?

Study of structures requiring magnification.

What is histology?

Study of microscopic structure of tissues and cells.

What is the cellular level of organisation?

The basic unit of all living things except viruses.

What is the tissue level?

Similar cells working together for specific functions.

What is the organ level?

Two or more tissues working together for specific tasks.

What is the organ system level?

Organs interacting together in organ systems.

What are the four basic tissue types?

Epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous/neural tissue.

What does epithelial tissue cover?

The whole surface of the body.

Where is epithelial tissue found?

Skin, body cavities, blood vessels and lymph vessels.

What is a key protective function of epithelium?

Protects surfaces from abrasion, dehydration and harmful agents.

Which germ layers produce epithelial tissue?

All three: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

What does embryonic ectoderm form in epithelium?

The epidermis.

What does embryonic mesoderm form in epithelium?

Heart and blood vessel linings, plus some organs.

What does embryonic endoderm form in epithelium?

Respiratory and gastrointestinal tract linings.

What is the main role of connective tissue?

Connection, support and protection.

Give examples of connective tissue.

Cartilage, tendon, fascia and blood.

What functions can connective tissue perform?

Transport, protection and defence against microorganisms.

Which germ layer produces connective tissue?

Embryonic mesoderm.

What is the specialised function of muscle tissue?

Contraction to produce movement.

What are the three muscle tissue types?

Skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.

What does skeletal muscle produce?

Voluntary movement of the skeleton.

What does cardiac muscle do?

Propels blood through the body.

What does smooth muscle do?

Aids digestion, excretion and movement in vessel walls.

Which germ layer produces muscle tissue?

Embryonic mesoderm.

Which germ layer produces nervous tissue?

Embryonic ectoderm.

What is nervous tissue specialised to conduct?

Electrical impulses between body regions.

Where is 98% of nervous tissue concentrated?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is a gland?

An organ that secretes substances into the body.

What are the two main gland types?

Exocrine and endocrine glands.

How do exocrine glands release secretions?

Through a duct.

What are the two parts of an exocrine gland?

Secretory portion and duct.

What does the secretory portion of a gland do?

Releases secretion into a lumen.

What does a gland duct do?

Transports secretion to its destination.

How do endocrine glands release products?

Directly into the bloodstream, without ducts.

What do endocrine glands release?

Hormones.

What is histology used to understand?

Microscopic structure and its relationship to function.

What is histopathology?

Study of diseased tissue.

How is histology typically studied?

Using light microscopy of thin, stained tissue sections.

What is the typical resolution limit of light microscopy?

About 0.2 µm maximum; typically about 0.6 µm.

What does electron microscopy provide?

Sub-cellular resolution.

What is embryology?

Study of embryos and their development.

Why is embryology important in anatomy?

It explains relationships and many congenital anomalies.

When does human development begin?

When a spermatozoon fertilises an oocyte.

What happens to the fertilised oocyte?

It undergoes mitosis, forming a 2-cell embryo.

What happens after about 8 weeks of development?

The few cells become a foetus with millions of cells.

What is anatomical position?

Standard reference position for describing body structures.

What are the feet doing in anatomical position?

Together, with toes directed forwards.

Where do the palms face in anatomical position?

Forwards.

Why is anatomical position important?

It standardises descriptions of structure location.

What are anatomical planes?

Hypothetical 2D slices through the 3D body.

Why are anatomical planes important clinically?

They help interpret CT and MRI images.

What is the median plane?

Midline plane dividing the body into equal left/right halves.

What is a sagittal/parasagittal plane?

Plane parallel to median, dividing unequal left/right portions.

What is the coronal plane?

Vertical plane dividing anterior and posterior portions.

What is the transverse plane?

Horizontal plane dividing superior and inferior portions.

What is another name for the transverse plane?

Axial or horizontal plane.

What does anterior mean?

Towards the front.

What does posterior mean?

Towards the back.

What does superior mean?

Above or towards the head.

What does inferior mean?

Below or away from the head.

What does cranial mean?

Towards the head.

What does caudal mean?

Towards the tail.

What does medial mean?

Towards the median sagittal plane.

What does lateral mean?

Away from the median sagittal plane.

What does proximal mean?

Closer to the origin.

What does distal mean?

Further from the origin.

What does superficial mean?

Towards the body surface.

What does deep mean?

Away from the body surface.

What does superolateral mean?

Both superior and lateral.

What is the thorax?

Region between neck and abdomen containing the thoracic cavity.

What separates thorax from abdomen?

The diaphragm.

What bounds the abdomen and pelvis region?

Diaphragm above and pelvic diaphragm below.

What are the two main upper body regions in regional anatomy?

Thorax and abdomen/pelvis.

What structures make up the head and neck region?

Skull, cranial cavity, face and neck.

How are the upper limbs attached to the trunk?

Via the pectoral girdle.

How are the lower limbs attached to the trunk?

Via the pelvic girdle.

How are proximal and distal used for arteries?

Proximal branches are closer to vessel origin; distal are farther.

What is flexion?

Bending or decreasing the angle at a joint.

What is extension?

Straightening or increasing the angle at a joint.

In which plane does flexion/extension occur?

Sagittal plane.

What is abduction?

Movement of a limb away from the midline.

What is adduction?

Movement of a limb towards the midline.

In which plane do abduction/adduction occur?

Coronal plane.

What is medial rotation?

Rotation towards the midline.

What is lateral rotation?

Rotation away from the midline.

What is circumduction?

Combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.

What is pronation?

Forearm medial rotation so palm faces posteriorly.

What is supination?

Forearm lateral rotation so palm faces anteriorly.

What is the axis for digit abduction/adduction?

An axis along the middle finger.

What is thumb opposition?

Movement of the thumb towards the little finger.

What is dorsiflexion?

Moving the top of the foot towards the front of the leg.

What is plantarflexion?

Moving the top of the foot away from the leg; pointing toes.

What is inversion?

Turning the sole of the foot to face medially.

What is eversion?

Turning the sole of the foot to face laterally.

What is bone?

Bone is a specialised connective tissue that is living, calcified and richly supplied with blood.