Sociology Exam 2

aggregate (6)

a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity

authoritarian leader

a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks

bureaucracies

formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality.

category

people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way

clear division of labor

the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform

coercive organizations

organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital

conformity

the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms

democratic leader

a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action

dyad

a two-member group

explicit rules

the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized

expressive function

a group function that serves an emotional need

expressive leader

a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing

formal organizations

large, impersonal organizations

group

any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity

hierarchy of authority

a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy

impersonality

the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation

in-group

a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity

instrumental function

being oriented toward a task or goal

instrumental leader

a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks

Iron Rule of Oligarchy

the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration

laissez-faire leader

a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions

leadership function

the main focus or goal of a leader

leadership style

the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members

McDonaldization of Society

the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions

meritocracy

a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills

normative or voluntary organizations

organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards

out-group

a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with

primary groups

small, informal groups of people who are closest to us

reference groups

groups to which an individual compares herself

secondary groups

larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited

total institution

an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs

triad

a three-member group

utilitarian organizations

organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need

conflict theory

a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance

control theory

a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society

court

a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law

crime

a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions

criminal justice system

an organization that exists to enforce a legal code

deviance

a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms

differential association theory

a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance

formal sanctions

sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced

hate crimes

attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics

informal sanctions

sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions

labeling theory

the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society

legal codes

codes that maintain formal social control through laws

master status

a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual

negative sanctions

punishments for violating norms

nonviolent crimes

crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force

positive sanctions

rewards given for conforming to norms

power elite

a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources

primary deviance

a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others

sanctions

the means of enforcing rules

secondary deviance

deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society

self-report study

a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews

social control

the regulation and enforcement of norms

social disorganization theory

a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control

social order

an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives

strain theory

a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals

street crime

crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces

victimless crime

activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them

violent crimes

crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force

Robert Merton

Strain Theory - A lack of ways to reach socially accepted goals by accepted methods

Karl Marx

Unequal system - Inequalities in wealth and power that arise from the economic system

C. Wright Mills

Power Elite - Ability of those in power to define deviance in ways that maintain the status quo

Edwin Lemert

Labeling Theory - The reactions of others, particularly those in power who are able to determine labels

Edwin Sutherland

Differential Association Theory - Learning and modeling deviant behavior seen in other people close to the individual

Travis Hirschi

Control Theory - Feelings of disconnection from society

cyberfeminism

the application to and promotion of feminism online

design patents

patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product

digital divide

the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines

e-readiness

the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge

evolutionary model of technological change

a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough

gatekeeping

the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount

knowledge gap

the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology

media

all print, digital, and electronic means of communication

media consolidation

a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets

media globalization

the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas

neo-Luddites

those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life

net neutrality

the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers

new media

all interactive forms of information exchange

oligopoly

a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace

panoptic surveillance

a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly

planned obsolescence

the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable from the time it’s created

plant patents

patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced

technological diffusion

the spread of technology across borders

technological globalization

the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology

technology

the application of science to solve problems in daily life

technophiles

those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future

utility patents

patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine

absolute poverty

deprivation so severe that it puts day-to-day survival in jeopardy.

caste system

a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives

class

a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation

class system

social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments

class traits

the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers)

closed system

a system of stratification that accommodates little change in social position.

conspicuous consumption

the act of buying and using products to make a statement about one’s social standing

Davis-Moore thesis

a thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity and is functional

downward mobility

a lowering of one’s social class

endogamous marriages

unions of people within the same social category

exogamous unions

unions of spouses from different social categories