PSY 121: Methods & Tools of Psychology - Scientific Method and Epistemology

Flashcards covering introductory concepts in PSY 121: Methods & Tools of Psychology, including non-empirical ways of knowing, elements of scientific research, Freudian concepts, and factors influencing the discipline and termination of new hires.

Descriptive research

An investigation that characterizes the nature of a single variable or psychological phenomenon without examining relationships or establishing causality.

Relational research

A study design that assesses the statistical association or correlation between two or more variables without demonstrating that one causes changes in another.

Causal research

An experimental investigation designed to determine whether manipulating an independent variable directly produces changes in a dependent variable.

Three core requirements for establishing causality

Temporal precedence (cause precedes effect), covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations or confounding variables.

Predictor variable (PV) and criterion variable (CV)

Non-experimental counterparts to independent and dependent variables used in relational research, where the predictor forecasts the outcome measured by the criterion.

Curvilinear relationship

An association between two variables where the direction of the effect shifts across different levels, such as performance increasing with moderate arousal but declining with excessive arousal.

Boundary condition

A specific context, population, or set of circumstances where an established theoretical relationship or finding no longer holds true.

Operational definition

The concrete, measurable procedure or metric used to quantify or manipulate an abstract theoretical construct in research.

Informed consent

An autonomous, voluntary agreement by an individual to participate in research after being informed of all study procedures, risks, and benefits.

Assent

The affirmative willingness to participate in research expressed by individuals who lack legal competence (such as minors), obtained alongside parental or guardian consent.

Exceptions to informed consent

Research scenarios involving minimal risk, complete anonymity, and naturalistic settings where seeking prior consent would fundamentally alter the behavior being observed.

Principle of Beneficence

The ethical rule stating that the anticipated benefits of research to participants or society must decisively outweigh any potential physical, psychological, or privacy risks.

Principle of Justice in research

The ethical imperative requiring fair and equitable distribution of research burdens and benefits across diverse populations rather than exploiting vulnerable groups.

Physical trace measurement

An observational mode of data collection based on examining physical remnants, residues, or leftover evidence resulting from past behavior.

Contrived observation

An observational technique in which an investigator deliberately introduces a staged event or changes the environment to observe the resulting participant behavior.

Scales of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio

Nominal sorts into qualitative categories; Ordinal orders by rank; Interval provides equal distances between values without a true zero; Ratio includes equal distances and an absolute zero.

Face validity

The subjective appearance of a test or measurement tool, assessing whether it superficially appears to measure the construct under study.

Content validity

The extent to which an instrument comprehensively samples and reflects all essential facets of the theoretical construct being measured.

Convergent validity versus discriminant validity

Convergent validity reflects strong correlations with other measures of the same or similar constructs; discriminant validity reflects low correlations with unrelated constructs.

Criterion validity: Concurrent versus predictive

Concurrent validity evaluates how a measure relates to a behavioral outcome assessed at the present time; predictive validity evaluates how accurately it forecasts a future behavioral outcome.

Internal consistency

The degree to which individual items within a single instrument correlate with each other, frequently quantified using Cronbach's alpha ($\alpha$).

Interrater reliability

The extent of consensus or consistency between two or more independent observers who rate or code qualitative or behavioral data.

Three defining criteria of a true experiment

Active manipulation of an independent variable with two or more levels, random assignment of participants to conditions, and measurement of the dependent variable after manipulation.

Between-subjects design versus within-subjects design

In a between-subjects design, each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable; in a within-subjects design, every participant completes all experimental conditions.

Counterbalancing

An experimental technique in within-subjects designs that varies the sequence of conditions across participants to eliminate confounding order and carryover effects.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental control method where neither the participants nor the research staff interacting with them know who has received the active treatment or the placebo.

Manipulation check

A measurement administered following an experimental intervention to verify whether the independent variable successfully produced the intended psychological or physiological state.

Internal validity versus external validity

Internal validity is the confidence with which an experiment rules out confounds to prove causality; external validity is the degree to which findings generalize to different populations and contexts.

Methodological triangulation

The use of multiple research designs, operationalizations, and methodologies to investigate a single research question, providing convergent support for empirical findings.