MOTIVATION & EMOTION MIDTERM #1

Motivation

Chracteristics of Motivation

forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior

• activation

• presence (overt response/action/reaction, persistence, vigor)

• direction

Intensity

more intense behaviors considered to be the result of higher motivation

Persistence

conceptually: motivation indicates the persistence of a behavior

Categories of Motivation Analysis: NOMOTHETIC vs. IDIOGRAPHIC

Nomothetic: development of general/universal laws ; studies aim to discover how people or animals are similar ; assumes: discoveries about one species will translate to another ex: hypothalamus in rats and humans

Idiographic: the opposite ; studies aim to discover how ppl & animals are diff ex: brocas & wernickes diff locations per person

Categories of Motivation Analysis: INNATE vs. ACQUIRED

Innate: “instincts”

Acquired: learned behavior

Categories of Motivation Analysis: MECHANISTIC vs. COGNITIVE

Mechanistic: triggered automatically

Cognitive: controlled by rational purposive thoughts

Levels of Analysis (studying motivation): PHYSIOLOGICAL

• structures that trigger motivation (groups of cells or neurotransmitters)

• require: electrical, chemical, surgical manipulation of brain areas

INDIVIDUAL analysis: how does a single individual change

Levels of Analysis (studying motivation): PHILOSOPHICAL

• freud aversive state (avoidant)

• motivation states create a condition of tension that the indiv. seeks to reduce

• indiv. have little control over innate conditions that generate motivational tension

• HUMANISM PERSPECTIVE: behavior oriented towards self-actualization (reaching full potential) —> so positive state

Major Constructs of Motivation

• energy

• Learning:

  • Operant Conditioning: reinforcement ; learning consequences

  • Classical Conditioning: trained association

  • Observational Learning: acquire knowledge by watch others

  • Modeling: observing and imitating

• physiological mechanisms:

  • triggers of wired in or innate behaviors

  • ex: hunger motivation —> blood glucose detectors

• Social interactions ex: bystander effect

• Cognitive processes: active info process to control behav. ex: cog diss.

• Homeostasis: optimal state of body

• Hedonism: approach pleasure, avoid pain

Physiological Antecedents/LOCALIZATION

Localization: specific parts of the brain have specific functions

Primary motivators

hunger, sex, thirst (safety is considered in maslow’s)

Sex

• humans engage in sex for other reasons than reproduction

Viability

once its born how likely is it to survive

Fecundity

how many offspring is possivle, how much sex or offspring can be produced

Fertility

are they able to reproduce/ give birth

Mate selection

Females:

• Optimal strat: select mate to provide offspring w high survival, resource accumulation & young

Males:

• Optimal strat: mate w as many females as possible

Humans: PARENTAL INVESTMENT MODEL

• women want men w/ resources to support them

• men want women w/ perceived reproductive value

• men motivates to display resources

William James - Theory on Instinct

• believed instincts are like reflexes (happen instinct 1st time, until purpose is learned

• thought that memory interacted with instinct so that subsequent behaviors no longer instinctual, instead learned

• modesty = instinct bc TAKEAWAY: instinct can be moderated by experience

MAIN PRINCIPLES

• HABIT: can inhibit an instinct (if you’re scared of ur teacher, it inhibits natural curiosity)

• TRANSITORY: only useful at specific times (duckling follow 1st thing it sees only for 3 days)

William McDougall - Instincts

• 3 components

• COGNITiVE: knowing an object that can satisfy an instinct, thoughts about goals that will satisfy a motive (hungry, cheese)

• AFFECTIVE: feeling emotion that object arouses, emotions aroused by behavior (rotten food makes u disgusted)

• CONOTATIVE: strive toward goal or away from_, ex: ape does puzzle without promised goal, behavior aroused was instinct of curiosity

INSTINCT VS. REFLEX

Instinct: behavioral response,could be thought of, urge thats hard to explain/might not know why u do it/ comes from learned behaviors so u do know why

Reflex: physio response (knee jerk or sweat), just happen without thinking abt it

TEOLOGY

• behavior serves ultimate purpose

• explains HUMAN behavior (not animal)

• behaviors have a goal

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

• attribute human characteristics to objects or animal

ETHOLOGY

• bio: evolution, development, function of behavior

• observe organisms in natural settings

• APPETITIVE BEHAVIOR: restless, flexible, adaptive (seeking ex: looking for food

• CONSUMMATORY BEHAVIOR: well coordinated, fixed pattern (completing ex: biting chewing swallow food once caught)

• A - C

• ENV —> filtered for SIGN STIM —> triggers RESPONSE MECHANISM

• Environmental stimulus: full thing in context (fish territory)

• Key sign stim: red belly

• Behavior triggered: attack

• Social releaser: key stim serve as communicative funct between members of same spec (triggers an instinctual resp)

• Supernormal Stimulus: release behavior more effectively than norm stimu. (triggers hyper response which overrides reg pref) ex: steamy books, bird picks giant egg over its own egg

FIXED ACTION PATTERN

• species specific motor patterns

• rigid, stereotyped, invariable

• once activated behavior continues until completion regardless of anything external

• INSTINCTUAL, not learned

• Stickleback fish

Conflict Behavior

Successive ambivalent behavior

• alternating back n forth between opposing incomplete fixed action patterns (conflict between internal drive)

• Ex: attacks then retreats then attacks again

Simultaneous ambivalent behavior

• both motivations states can be expressed in behav

• perform both opposing drives at exact same time

• Ex: Cat arches back (fear), growling teeth (agression/anger)

Redirect behavior

• approp. behavior occurs at not approp. object bc of conflicting motive

• “safer target”

• Ex: kid argues w mom and hits the couch

Ethological displacement

• energy associated with 2 motives accumulates, prevent action; neither express

• Ex: fight vs flight but end up just freezing

Intention movements

• low intensive movement indicate energy abt to be released ; prep ready

• social releasers

• ex: bird crouching down before flying

Imprinting

• socialization where young organism forms attachment to parent

• sensitive period: imprinting occurs (more readily than b4/af)

• both instinctive and learned

Imprinting - Lorenz & the geese

• imprinted geese to himself

• imprinting occurs independent of reward/movement

• immediately attached

• irreversible bond

• long term effects - sexual imprinting : they were attracted to humans and lorenz more than their own species

How can we delineate between whats learned and instinct

Instinct:

• fully forms on 1st attempt (not practiced, just stereotyped)

• expressed even if ind. isolated

• expressed across all regardless of sex/spec.

• rigid ; completes even if conditions change

Learned:

• improves w prac

• requires exposure

• varies widely

• can adapt, be unlearned/modified

Open vs. Closed Program

Program: series of behaviors that are genetically determined

Open: can be modified by experience

Closed: cannot be modified by experience

Both genetically determined

Contemporary Ethology

• we respond to certain stimuli and not others

innate behaviors

• facial expressions

• flirting

• sex

• agression

Sex & agression (NEUROSCI)

Hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalmus are implicated

amygdala processes emotional and social cues that can lead to either sexual arousal or agression and helps to determine hoe to approach stim.

Types of agression:

Intraspecifc: BTWN SAME species

Interspecifc: DIFF species

Predatory: food getting behavior

Ritualized: not all agression for killing or resources; animals with fangs dont always use to kill each other

Genetic basis for agression

• MAOA: enzyme that breaks down dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

• involved with physical reaction to dangerous stimuli

• people w malfunctioning MAOA, constant state of readiness, violent overreactions in stressful situations

• genes can be activated or deactivated by environment ; genes and social factors can exaggerate or diminish effects

Arousal Theory

• view it on continuum, low to high

• changes in arousal increase or decrease efficiency

• arousal changes behavior

• PROBLEM: lack of relationship btwn cortical autonomic behavioral arousal

• PROBLEM: general assumption that cortical arousal = motivated or emotional state (atrophine can do this too)

Yerkes Dodson Law

optimal level of arousal for one task might not be for the other

stress level, arousal levels & performance

think bell curve

peak performance is top of the curve

Encephale isole

• cut between medulla and spine

• animals will continue sleep wake cycle

• deprived of higher cortical tissue

• loss of high cortical funcs (agressive behavior, exec func

Cerveau Isole

• cut in brain stem at colliculi

• sleep wake cycle abolished

• sleep constantly, no ability to wake spontaneously

PONS

• structure in brain stem, above medulla, below midbrain, above spine

• controls change from sleeping to waking

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

• group of neurons located in brain stem

• from medulla thru thalamus

• sensory info project from spinal cord

• regulates arousal & consciousness; filters sensory input

• triggers aleterness

RAS: ALPHA WAVES

• relaxed state

• synchronized

• meditation, relaxation, alert, concentration, thinking, restful

RAS: BETA

• desynchronized

• act independently

• 12-30Hz

• Alert concentration thinking busy active mind

Hebb’s Theory

Sensory info serves 2 purposes

Cue Function:

• provide info

• sensory stimuli sent to RAS and the cortex by the thalamus

• signals processed by cortex

Arousal Func:

• to arouse the indiv

• if indiv cortex not aroused, don’t respond

THALAMUS

• BRAIN FILTER

• filters sensory stimuli and sends it to approp brain region

• deep interbrain/forebrain

SLEEP

• most basic need

• motivated need state, type of behavior

• 1/3 of life

• overrides hunger sex

• brain can be highly active

Properties of sleep

• circadian rhythm (24 hrs in length, cyclic change)

• controlled by 2 seperate processes

  • Homeostatic: increase likelihood of sleep the longer we’re awake

  • Circadian process: determines when we wake up

• amount of sleep decreases w/ age

Sleep Depriv.

• problems with attention and cognitive processing if 48hrs w/o sleep

• increases suggestibility (accept ideas w/o thinking too much, easy to convince)

Amplitude vs. Frequency

Amp: height of peake, how synchro neurons are

Freq: how fast cycles, how fast brain waves move

BETA has higher FREQ

ALPHA has higher AMP

AWAKE (before sleeping)

• ALPHA

• Synchronized, relaxed

STAGE 1

• THETA

• High freq, low amp

• 3.5 -7.5hz

• lasts 10-15mins

• irregular low amp waves

(baby waves, tight close)

STAGE 2

• THETA waves

• sleep spindles: high freq

• K-complex: increase in amplitude (spikes in theta waves)

STAGE 3

• DELTA

• less than 3.5 hz

• large slow waves occur 20-50% of sleep stage

• more than 50% = stage 4

• high amp, low freq

STAGE 4

• dominant slow high amp waves

• achieved after 30-45mins of falling asleep

• DELTA WAVES : less than 3.5, high amp low freq

Sleep cycle

1234 32 REM (then continues 23432 but dont need to know after rem)

STAGE 5: REM

• rapid eye movement sleep

• mix theta beta alpha

• when dreams occur

• low muscle tone

• eyes move under lids

• SLEEP PARALYSIS: cant move but mentally thinking, failure of rem, dont get theta waves

• occurs ever 9- mins

Physio of sleep

NREM —> blood pressure, heart rate, respiration decline ; arteries dilate —> vasodilation

REM —> increase blood flow to brain & genitals

Brain Stem Mechanisms of Arousal

• reticular system activated by sensory info

• arouses cerebal cortex along seperate pathways

• 1st: reticular formation —> thalamus —> cerebral cortex

• 2nd: reticular formation —> lateral hypothalamus —> basal ganglia —> basal forebrain —> activates cerebral cortex & hippocampus

• Reticular formation influences motivation via hypothalamus, learning via hippocampus/basal ganglia

Neurotransmitters

• within body

• chemicals allow neurons to communicate

• secreted by neuron

• stored in synaptic vesicles

NT of arousal

Acetylcholine (ACh):

• blocking results in reduced arousal levels

• ACh increases general arousal

• prod by basal forebrain & pons

Norepinephrine:

• prod by locus coereleus

• prod is high during periods of wake, low in periods of sleep

• becomes 0 in rem

• vigilance

Serotonin:

• prod in raphe nuclei

• facilitates automatic funcs: chew, pace, groom

• maintains ongoing activities

• suppresses sensory info

Histamine

• prod in hypothalamus (tuberomammilart nucl)

• maintain alertness + arousal

• same as serotonin on slides..

Orexin:

• prod by neurons in lateral hypotha

• role in regulating sleep, wakefulness, appetite, physio func

Ventrolateral preoptic area

• crucial for delta wave sleep

• in rats: destruction of this area = no sleep & die in 3 days

Stress

arousal levels too high = stress

occurs when body is forced to cope with or adapt to changed situation

Systemic & psychological stress

• stress does not require physical challenge

• can occur bc of psycho

• psycho stress reaction can be same as systemic stress reaction

• can be regulated

Endocrine System Activity & Stress

Endocrine System

• set of glands located thruout body, secretes hormones

• hormones —> chem signals regulate coordinate activity of organs

• PITUITARY GLAND: controls other glands, located at base of brain, controlled by hypotha

• stress response, metabolism, energy, growth, reprod.m sleep,wake

general adaptation syndrome

1. Alarm reaction

   • first stage —> stress response where body prepares for fight or flight by releasing hormones

   • corticoids of adrenal cortex secreted into bloodstream

   • epinephrine secreted by adrenal medulla —> travels all parts of body so increases heart breathing muscles

   • resistance to stress is below normal during beginning of alarm reaction

2. Resistence

   • 2nd stage

   • corticoid levels decrease, slightly above normal

   • instead of mobilizing entire body, stages mobilizes parts under attack

3. Exhaustion

• 3rd stage

• reaction to stress becomes general again

• corticoid levels rise similar to alarm reaction

• stressor not eliminated, the bodily defenses r exhausted

Placebo Effects

• placebo —> inert substance that people nevertheless report make them feel better

• influenced person’s expectation, desire, emotion

• prior experience mediates this relationship

Sexual Motivation

• clearest example of close relationship btwn arousal motivated behavior

• sexual desire can considered like appetite, must want it (arousal) before can occur

• Hypoactive sexual desire —> uninterested in sexual behavior

Sexual Arousal

4 STAGES

1. Excitation:

   • Vasocongestion: concentration of blood flow to penis in males, clitoris in females

   • myotonia: increased muscle tone thru body, maintained until orgasm

   • induced by phys or psych stim, erect penis, lengthened lubricated vag

2. Plateau

   • intensified sexual arousal

   • prep for climax

3. Orgasm

   • climax

   • tension reduced

   • females: can happen multiple times

   • males: once during ejaculation until refractory period met

4. Resolution

   • refractory men = 10-30 mins, longer if older

   • women = undefined

Bodily changes during sex

Women:

• heart rate increase 100-180bpm

• contractions of hands & feet

• breasts & nipples change color & size

• uterus increase in size, rises away from bag

• during orgasm:vagina contracts rhythmically

Men:

• heart rate increase 100-180bpm

• nipple erection

• penile erection (can also occur during rem or fear/anxiety situations)

• testes elevate & rotate

Sensory specific satiety

• appetite for flavor decreases, apetite unchanged for others

• ex: full of savory, room for sweet treat

• hungry = increased activity in amygdala

• humans motivated by caloric value when angry, taste when not

Local Theories

• early theories suggest stomach contractions were signals that initiated eating

• assumes that signals that control motives like hunger & thirst are produced in peripheral organs of body, as opposed to the brain

• WRONGG

• severing the nerve causes stomach contractions to stop but humans still experienced hunger

Central Theories

• specific brain cells notice when ur body needs smt (water) & triggers urge to act (feel thirsty)

• brain controls more than stomach/throat

• HYPOTHALAMUS MAIN

Hypothalamus

• controls activation of sympathetic & parasympathetic NS

• controls pituitary gland & endocrine sys

• LOCATED UNDER THALAMUS

Regulation of Hunger

• blood glucose detected by glucoreceptors, trigger motivation to eat

• blood glucose level rise = glucoreceptors inhibit further eating

Short-term regulation

• control intermeal intervals & meal size

• balance between energy expenditure & energy intake

• Lesions to hypothalamus made animals obese (hyperphagia)

Lateral hypothalamus

• feeding (triggers hunger)

• damage = loss of appetite

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

• satiety (signals fullness)

• damage = overeating

Peripheral Detectors:

• enzymes, intestines, satiety signals, gastrointenstinal tract sends & receives info to brain via VAGUS nerve

• stomach could be removed, people still feel hungry

• DUODENUM

  • possible site containing glucoreceptors

  • glucose injected here supresses eating in rabbits

  • produces glp1

• LIVER

  • potential source of hunger & satiety

• PANCREAS

  • responsive to insulin & amylin

  • signals glucose availbility

LONG TERM REGULATION

• set point theory: lipostatioc theory of hunger

• set point natural body weight

• body maintains weight

Leptin: hormone produced by fat cells, released into bloodstream in direct proportion to amount of energy avail in fat stores (lean=low leptin, obese= high leptin

Leptin: detected in hypothalamus, neurons that are sensitive to change in leptin produce NT that trigger other brain areas responsible for energy intake and usage

also cannabis, hypothalamus -energy, munchies

Non Homeostatic eating behaviors

• disordered eating are disorders of regulation

Most eating

• eat before conditions produce low glucose levels

• more often humans eat to avoid loss of homeostasis

• processes are both behavioral & metabolic

Anorexia Nervosa

• restrict food

• risk of suicide

• 9% females

• AMENORRHEA —> absence of menstruation dropped off

• global brain atrophy

• enlargement of external and internal sulci and ventricles

• Serotonin hypothesis:

  • increased serotonin activity associated w/ lack of eating & mood changes (before/after starving - brain wise at healthy weight)

  • during starving (state- physically underweight): low serotonin

• no chromo abnormalities

• high heredity

Bulimia Nervosa

• binge eat large quantities within short periods

• 3.8 - 13% college pop

• episodic, cant stop eat when start

• loss of control

• purging behavior, severely restricted eating too

• SOCIAL CONTAGION THEORY:

  • lower self esteem = more open to social influence

  • norm within group to binge eat = more likely to adopt that

• OTHER THEORIES:

  • addicted to eating bc moderates mood swing

  • inheritable (NT)

OBESITY

• long term imbalance btwn energy intake & usage

• 40.3% in US

• basal metabolism

• continued storage of energy beyond normal —> adaptiveness wrong —> in rats, reduced arousal and lower activity conserved energy

• Genetic predisposition

  • some js carry more fat

  • diet might not reduce fat cells, just fat cell size

  • ppl obsese could be larger number of overall fat cells

• Addiction factor of Obesity

  • palatable food convereges on shared pathway in limbic system, like drugs

  • highly palatble food increased dopamine and arousal

• HYPERPALATABLE

  • contain high fat sofium sugar carbs trigger brain reward system

Stress

• psycho stress infleunce eating

• stress mice lower leptin causing increased hunger

Regulation of thirst

• peripheral changes like dry mouth prompt thirst

Sex Hormones

• females and male brains diff bc of sex hormones

• male = intrahemispheric connectivity (WITHIN EITHER L/R HEMI)

• females - inter hemisphereic connectiveh(ACROSS BOTH HALVES)

MALES:

• brainforms when testosterone during critical period of development

• testosterone receptor bind to cell DNA,alters proteins

SEXUAL Dimorphism

• 1st 6 weeks - females & males the same

• genes on Y chromo produce protein later

• sex hormones activate sex behaviors

• males: thrusting, ejaculation, intormission (penetrate)

• females: attractivity ,proceptivity(sexually arousing males like mounting), receptivity (successful transfer of sperm)

• 
  

Regulation of Agressive Motivation

• cortex unnecessary for expression of anger

• Cats w/o cortex show sham rage - looks like agression not directed toward stimuli

LIMBIC SYSTEM

• hypothalamus, anterior thalamic nuclei, cingulate gyrus, hippocmapus —> PAPEZ CIRCUIT

• research on monkeys with removed temporal lobes result in former agressive monkeys become tame

TYPES OF AGRESSION

Predatory: elicitied by natural object of prey

fear induced: occurs when escape is blocked

territorial: defend territory

Intermale: presence of another male

Irritable: anger, rage, attacl, occurs in response to broad range of stimuli

Maternal: defense of the young

Instrimental: learned response,performed when response is reinforced

NEUROBIO: amygdala implicatedin agressive heabioors

BRAINNN

Limbic:

• emotional control panel

• amygdala: fear danger fight flight

• hippocmapus: memories emotions

• hypothalamus: body thermostat (balance, hunger,sleep)UNDER THALAMUS

• thalamus: relaystation, filter

Lower brain center: survival

Beneath limbic, connect brain to spinal

Cerebellum: muscle coordinator

Brainstem: staying alove, heart rate breathing