APES Mrs. Paxson Earth Science, Biomes and Atmosphere单词卡

Troposphere

Where we live. Most weather occurs here. Most of the O2 is found here. This is the most dense layer. Most water vapor

0 - 9 miles from sea level.

Stratosphere

Where ozone traps UV(b and c)radiation

9 - 31 miles. Drier and less dense

Mesosphere

31- 50 miles. Temp. decrease with elevation

Thermosphere

upper atmosphere. HOT!

50 + miles Absorbs high energy solar radiation

Nitrogen

atmosphere gas 78%

Oxygen

atmospher gas 21%

Water vapor

varies from 0.01 - 4%

Higher over the ocean, in the tropics

Lower over the poles and over deserts

CO2

400 ppm & increasing

Ozone

good in stratosphere

bad in troposphere

Methane

Makes up most of natural gas

Livestock such as cattle produce CH₄ through enteric fermentation, in which microorganisms anaerobically break down plant material in the digestive system.

Greenhouse Effect

CO2 72%

CH4 18%(25% warming effect than CO2)

N2O 9%

Albedo

the percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface

N2O

Sources include agriculture (fertilizer)

Industry - nitric acid

Burning of solid waste

Burning of fossil fuels

Weather

the day to day (short term) events of precipitation, wind, temperature, and atmospheric pressure

Climate

the pattern of weather over an extended period of time (30 years). Average Transfer of heat energy causes weather.

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator.

Altitude above sea level affects climate

Each 1000 foot gain = -4º F decline

Farther from the equator

the less direct solar radiation and the cooler the climate

The Coriolis Effect

The Coriolis Effect is the apparent deflection of moving air, water, or other objects caused by Earth's rotation.

Northern Hemisphere Right

Southern Hemisphere Left

Equator Very weak / essentially no Coriolis effect

Effect：

Global wind patterns

Ocean currents

Hurricanes / cyclones

Hurricane

Northern Hemisphere: hurricanes rotate counterclockwise ↺

Southern Hemisphere: hurricanes rotate clockwise ↻

Seasons

The Earth's axis is tilted 23.5º

The Earth rotates around its axis and it revolves around the sun.

Earth has two equinoxes - day and night are equal

Vernal Equinox: March 21

Autumnal Equinox: September 21

Solstices - when the sun is most N or S of the equator. June 21 and December 21

Circulation of Air

0°-30° → Hadley Cell

30°-60° → Ferrel Cell

60°-90° → Polar Cell

Hadley → Ferrel → Polar

Polar → Ferrel → Hadley

0° Equator Warm air rises ↑

30°Air sinks ↓

60°Air rises ↑

90° PolesCold air sinks ↓

At 0°: Warm moist air rises → cools → condensation → heavy precipitation

At 30°: Dry air sinks → fewer clouds → dry climate / deserts

Unequal solar heating → warm air rises → cool air sinks → convection cells → global air circulation → wind + precipitation patterns.

El Niño

warm eastern Pacific + weak trade winds + less upwelling

Elevated temperature

La Niña

ool eastern Pacific + strong trade winds + more upwelling

lowed temperature

El Niño & La Niña

A climate shift that occurs every 3 - 7 years

Warmer and wetter conditions in the United States.

Dryer in Indonesia and Australia.

South Asian Brown Cloud

A layer of air pollution over South Asia caused mainly by burning fossil fuels and biomass, containing aerosols that reduce sunlight and harm air quality.

stationary point-source air pollution

pollution from a fixed, identifiable source, such as a factory smokestack or power plant.

Mobile nonpoint-source air pollution

Pollution from moving vehicles, such as cars, trucks, and buses.(acidic rain)

Affects our cardiovascular health

Lung disease

Heart disease

Cancer

acidic rain most

Massachusetts

Primary pollutants

chemicals or substances emitted directly into the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to cause harm

CO, SO₂, NO, Particulate matter

Secondary pollutants

primary pollutants react with one another and with natural components of the air to produce harmful new pollutants

O3, H₂SO₄, HNO₃, PANs

CO

Colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas that forms during the incomplete combustion of organic matter. Produced by the burning of fossil fuels by vehicles and power plants, open fires, tobacco smoke, cooking stoves.

Combines with hemoglobin and reduces the ability of blood to carry oxygen.

Causes headaches, nausea, drowsiness, confusion, heart attacks, death. Aggravates lung diseases such as asthma and emphysema

NO2

Reddish-brown gas with a strong odor

Nitrogen and oxygen react under high combustion temperatures in automobile engines and coal-burning power plants and industrial plants.

NO2 can react with water vapor to form nitric acid (HNO3), a component of acid rain.

In sunlight, forms photochemical smog

Irritates eyes & lungs, asthma, bronchitis

photochemical smog

air pollution that forms from the interaction between chemicals in the air and sunlight

Common in warm, sunny areas with lots of traffic

industrial smog (gray smog)

air pollution composed mainly of sulfur dioxide from coal burning

SO2

Colorless gas with an irritating odor

Formed when S is released from burning coal and oil. Reacts with oxygen in the atm.

1/3 comes from sulfur cycle. 2/3 comes from human sources - combustion of S-containing coal and oil refining

In the atmosphere it forms sulfuric acid (H2SO4) causing acid rain. Harms plants, building and statues.

Absorbs UV radiation to form industrial smog

Affects of Acid Rain

Damages plants, soils, lakes, trees

Corrodes metals, damages paint, and stone on buildings and statues.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

Organic compounds that are gases.

1/3 are natural - plants, wetlands, termites.

Hydrocarbons from trees

Methane

Human sources - rice paddies, landfills, cows, pipelines.

Liquids that evaporate - gasoline, benzene, solvents, dry-cleaning fluids, components of plastics.

Ozone (O3)

Colorless gas found in both the troposphere (bad ozone) and the stratosphere (good ozone). Stratospheric ozone protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Bad ozone is a major component of smog.

Ozone is formed when human-created N oxides react with volatile organic compounds, sunlight and heat. VOCs are highly reactive and found in thousands of products - paint, cleaning supplies, solvents

Ozone is a major component of photochemical smog.

Causes coughing and breathing problems, irritates the eyes, nose, and throat. Damages plants. Lung/Heart disease

Suspended Particulate Matter

Solid particles and liquid droplets that are small enough to be suspended in the air

Dust, soot, smoke, dirt, liquid particles

Comes from wood burning, construction sites, stone crushing, unpaved roads

Can be a primary pollutant, or a secondary pollutant formed from reactions of SO2 or NO2 coming from factory, vehicle or power plant emissions.

Temperature Inversions

warm air lies on top of cooler air

Pollutants can build up to harmful levels

Acid Deposition

Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) combine with water to form secondary pollutants such as H2SO4 and HNO3. These fall as wet deposition (fog, rain, snow, with a pH of less than 5.6) and acidic particles of sulfate and nitrate as dry deposition

Wet deposition can fall as much as 14 days after emission, far downwind.

Effects of Acid Deposition

Most fish can't survive in water with a pH lower than 4.5. Ocean acidification.

Thousands of lakes in Canada, Norway, Sweden and New England contain few fish

Soil acidification releases toxic Al3+ ions

Reduced tree growth and photosynthesis

More susceptible to insect, disease, drought

Acid deposition in the U.S. has decreased since 1994 due to the Clean Air Act.

Reducing Acid Deposition

Reduce coal use or use low-sulfur coal

Low sulfur coal has high levels of mercury and releases lots of CO2

Countries with lots of coal want to use it (United States, Russia, China, India)

Effects may be far downwind

Tax SO2 emissions

Using lime to neutralize acidified lakes and soils (expensive and temporary)

What causes ozone depletion?

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) started to be used in the 1950s as coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators, propellants in aerosol spray cans, cleaners for electric parts, fumigants, and to make foam insulation and packaging.

CFCs destroy ozone in the stratosphere.

Other chemicals also destroy ozone - Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFC) used in fire extinguishers. The fumigant, methyl bromide, and various cleaning solvents.

Compounds that release chlorine, bromine, fluorine

Lithosphere

A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust.Tectonic plates are part of the lithosphere.

Asthenosphere

The soft layer of the mantle on which the lithosphere floats. tectonic plates move over the asthenosphere.

Mantle

The layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core. 80% of Earth's volume

Inner Core / Outer Core

solid ball of iron and nickel

Outer core = liquid

Inner core = solid

Mesosphere

The strong, lower part of the mantle between the asthenosphere and the outer core

Tectonic Plates

Sections of the Earth's crust that move due to convection currents.

Continental crust

Continental crust - less dense. Made of granite. Rich in aluminum. 22 - 44 miles thick

Oceanic crust

more dense. Made of basalt (contain iron and magnesium) 3-6 miles thick

divergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other. Mid-Ocean Ridge

convergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other.

Transform boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move past each other in opposite directions

Subduction

The process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent plate boundary.

Active volcano

One that is erupting or shows signs that it may erupt in the near future.

dormant volcano

A volcano that has not erupted for a long time, but may erupt again one day.

extinct volcano

A volcano that has not erupted for thousands of years and probably will not erupt again.

Shield volcano

a wide, gently sloping mountain made of layers of lava and formed by quiet eruptions

Cinder cone volcano

A small, steeply sloped volcano that forms from moderately explosive eruptions of pyroclastic material.

Composite volcano

A tall, cone-shaped mountain in which layers of lava alternate with layers of ash and other volcanic materials

Hot spot

An area where magma from deep within the mantle melts through the crust above it

Ring of Fire

A region around the Pacific Ocean with many volcanoes and earthquakes.

Earthquakes

Sudden movement/release of energy in Earth's crust

Epicenter

The point on Earth's surface directly above the focus.

Strike-slip faults

slide horizontally past each other

Tsunami

A series of large ocean waves caused by sudden displacement of water.

Continental Drift

Continental drift = continents have moved over geologic time. Pangaea

Geologic Time Scale

scale used by paleontologists to represent evolutionary time

Biome

A group of ecosystems that share similar climates and typical organisms

most important: temperature + Precipitation

Water Biomes

71% The major factor affecting aquatic biomes is sunlight

Largest biome = marine biome

Tropical Rain Forest

near equator

high temperature

high humidity

80 inches precipitation/year

Tall trees + dense canopy + vines + epiphytes

Tropical rain forest = highest terrestrial biodiversity

#1 Tropical rainforest #2 Coral reef

Tropical rainforests have nutrient-poor soils because heavy rainfall causes leaching, while most nutrients are stored in biomass.

Forest Impacts

Logging and deforestation reduce forest habitat.

Desert

Less than 10 inches/year

Antarctica = cold desert

Desert adaptations

plants: waxy/leathery leaves

spines instead of leaves

succulents store water

stomata may open at night

animals: nocturnal

live in burrows

thick/scaly skin

small body/surface area

concentrated urine

Desert Impacts

Deserts are fragile ecosystems that recover slowly from disturbance.

Chaparral

ex Southern California

Mediterranean climate

Wet winters + dry summers

10-17 inches/year

Fire is a natural/common part of the ecosystem.

Temperate Grassland

ex North American prairie

hot summers + cold winters + strong winds

Temperate grasslands have some of the most fertile soils.

dead roots → organic matter → fertile soil

Agriculture + livestock grazing + overgrazing

Grassland Impacts

Grasslands are often converted into agricultural land.

Tropical Savanna

Tropical + warmer + scattered trees

rainfall Desert < Savanna < Rainforest

large herbivores

Human impacts：

overgrazing

poaching

clearing land for crops

Temperate Deciduous Forest

ex Eastern U.S. + Europe

Four distinct seasons

Deciduous = lose leaves

Human impacts：

urbanization + logging

Temperate Rain Forest

ex Pacific Northwest

Lots of rain + moisture/fog + mild temperatures

mosses

Taiga / Boreal Forest

ex Canada

Marine = largest biome overall

Taiga = largest terrestrial biome

Long, very cold winters

Short, moist summers

Needle leaves

waxy coating

Dark green

cone shape

soil: Thin + nutrient-poor + acidic

Tundra

Polar regions

Alpine tundra = high elevations

Coldest biome

little precipitation but doesn't mean dry because of permafrost

Permafrost = permanently frozen subsoil

Human impact: Oil production

Lowest biodiversity

Tundra Impacts

Drilling, mining, and infrastructure can damage fragile tundra ecosystems.

What determines climate?

Uneven Heating — The equator receives more direct solar energy than the poles.

Earth's Rotation — Earth's rotation deflects moving air and creates global wind patterns.

Properties of Air and Water — Differences in temperature and density cause air and water to move and redistribute heat.

Greenhouse Gases — Gases that absorb infrared radiation and warm the lower atmosphere.

Topography — Land features such as mountains and elevation that affect local climate.

Prevailing Winds

major surface winds that blow almost continuously.

Rain Shadow Effect

A dry region that forms on the leeward side of a mountain.

Windward Side

The side of a mountain where moist air rises and produces precipitation.

Leeward Side

The side of a mountain where dry air sinks and creates a dry climate.

Urban Heat Island

A city area that is warmer than surrounding rural areas because buildings and pavement absorb and release heat.

Endemic Species

A species found naturally in only one specific geographic area.

Mountain Water Cycle

Snow and ice store water in winter and melting snow provides water in warmer seasons

Salinization

Salinization refers to a build up of salts in soil, eventually to toxic levels for plants.

The salinity of the ocean is 3.5% or 35 ppt

1 gram of salt in 1000 grams of water (1 g = 1 ml)

Freshwater is about 0.5 ppt

How does salt get into water?

Irrigation water contains various salts that are picked up as the water flows over/through rocks and soil

Irrigation water evaporates, leaving behind a crust of dissolved salts

The UN estimates that soil salinization has reduced yields on at least 10% of the world's irrigated cropland

Saltwater Intrusion

Seawater intrusion is the movement of ocean water into fresh groundwater, causing contamination of the groundwater by salt. It is a natural process that can be made worse by human activities

Mining

Many minerals (ores) are mined from the lithosphere

Used to make many products

Gold, copper, silver, aluminum, uranium, tungsten

Resources such as limestone, sand, salt, phosphate

Mineral extraction can damage the environment

Soil erosion

Habitat destruction - removal of vegetation

Acid runoff from mine tailings - sulfide mix with water and oxygen to form sulfuric acid

Air pollution from machinery and smelting