govt terms 2026-2027

Will America stil be America in 2050?

sovereignty

the right of a state holds to govern itself, manage its resources, and enforces laws within its defined territory and without external inferference

government

the administrative body that conducts the affairs of any nation, state, or community and enforces law and order

state

a political entity having a permanent population, government and sovereignty, within a defined territory. a country is a distinct geographic territory with its own government and borders.

nation

a group of people who share various degrees of ancestry, ethnicity, language, and/or religion, in addition to an attachment to a homeland. in short, nations are about people, while countries are about land and politics.

democracy

a system of government in which political power and authority are vested in the people. its essential elements include free and fair elections, civil liberties and human rights, rule of law, and majority rule with minority rights.

republic

a system where citizens elect officials to make laws and govern on their behalf. also called representative democracy or democratic republic.

parliamentary government

unlike a presidential system with a strict separation of powers, this is a system of governance where voters elect the lawmakers (legislators), who then select the primer minister to serve as the head of government without fixed term limits.

authoritarianism

an umbrella term for governments that prioritize strict obedience to authority. leaders hold all political power but generally allow citizens to manage their private, religious, and economic lives if they do not challenge the state.

other forms of authoritarianism differ in managing power, ideology, and public mobilization

dictatorship

this is a more intense, absolute form of authoritarianism, under which all power is firmly concentrated in the hands of one single individual or a small ruling group who are not constitutionally accountable to the populace.

fascism

this is a specific, far-right political ideology that utilizes totalitarian tactics. it is characterized by extreme nationalism, the glorification of military might, and a strict social hierarchy where individual liberties are completely surrendered to the state. ex: adolf hitler’s nazi germany

totalitarianism

this is an extreme, all-encompassing form of authoritarianism. the state attempts to control every single aspect of public and private life, including the economy, education, and even citizens’ personal beliefs, using mass surveillance and intense propaganda. ex: north korea

theocracy

a system of government where religious leaders hold political power and public laws are based on religious doctrine. ex: afghanistan

plutocracy

a form of governance where the very wealthy hold significant power and influence over political decision-making. it can be considered a form of oligarchy, which is rule by a few.

insurrection

an organized, violent uprising by a group of citizens aimed at overthrowing or defying an established government and its laws. without plans for governing afterwards, anarchy can result

sedition

the crime of two or more people using speeches, publications or organizing efforts by a group of citizens aimed at overthrowing or defying an established government and its laws.

coup de’tat

a sudden, illegal seizure of power by a small group within the government or military. it typically involves unseating the existing leader and replacing them using coercion, threats, or force

capitalism

an economic system characterized by private ownership of production and fair competition in an open market, where profit is the primary motive.

socialism

an economic system where the government or the public collectively owns and controls the means of production (such as factories, land, and major resources), with the goal of reducing wealth inequality and sharing goods and services fairly, instead of operation for private profit, the primary goal is to distribute wealth equitably and produce goods based on human need rather than market demand, often through central planning

market socialism

the system where the means of production are owned by worker cooperatives or state entities, by production, distribution and pricing are guided by free-market forces of demand and supply rather than central governmental planning

democratic socialism

an economic and political system combining public or worker ownership of major industries with a democratic government. it seeks to replace the private profit motive with collective decision-making, while keeping free elections and civil liberties

unitary system

a government system in which the national government holds ultimate legal and political control over the entire country. also local or regional governments only possess powers loaned or delegated to them by the center resulting in laws and public directives generally applying the same way across all regions.

bicameral system

a legislative structure featuring two distinct chambers or houses—such as an upper and lower house—that must share lawmaking power and mutually consent to pass legislation, thereby instating internal checks and balances and diffusing political authority. the US Senate is the upper house; the House of Representatives is the lower house.

federal system

the US national system where power is divided between a central governing body and smaller regional states. it operates through the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, governed by a supreme national constitution.

preamble

the brief introductory statement of the US Constitution that establishes popular sovereignty, outlines the core purposes of government, and defines the source of political authority

constitutional amendment

a formal, permanent change or addition to the text of the US Constitution. it requires a rigorous proposal and ratification process—specifically a two-thirds supermajority vote in both houses of Congress (or a national convention) followed by ratification from three-fourths of the states

Bill of Rights

the first ten amendments to the US Constitution, ratified in 1791, which establish core civil liberties and limit federal government power to protect individual rights from arbitrary interference

Constitutional Clause

in the US Constitution is a specific, distinct section, paragraph, or provision that outlines specific powers, rights, or procedures. ex: the Supremacy Clause

plaintiff

the person(s) bring a lawsuit in civil court

respondent

the person(s) being sued in civil court. also known as defendant.

certiorari

a writ or order by which a higher court reviews a decision of a lower court

affirm

to confirm, ratify, or otherwise approve a lower court’s decision on appeal

reverse

the act of a higher court determining that the judgment of a lower court in a case was incorrect

remand

the act of a higher court sending a case back to a lower court for reconsideration

in loco parentis

Latin for “in the place of a parent” it refers to the legal responsibility of a person or organization to take on some of the functions and responsibilities of a parent

et. al.

a Latin phrase meaning “and others.”

criminal law

a system of law where the government charges an individual with violating specific statutes or laws that threaten public order, health, safety, or welfare, carrying punishments like imprisonment or fines. the constitutional requires an indictment by a grand jury of peers for crimes punishable by death or imprisonment for more than a year.

civil law

a branch of law that handles non-criminal disputes between private parties, such as individuals, businesses, or government agencies. it focuses on resolving conflict, honoring contracts, and paying compensation for harm rather than punishing lawbreakers.

Tinker vs Des Moines

the seminal US Supreme Court case that largely defined the First Amendment rights of public-school students. the plaintiff, middle school student, sued her school district. the supreme court determined that symbolic speech is permitted as long as it does not interfere with the educational process or the rights of other students.

New Jersey vs TLO

the US Supreme Court held that, while school officials, teachers, and administrators do not need a search warrant, they are still bound by the Fourth Amendment requirement that a search should be “reasonable”

Bethel vs Fraser

the US Supreme Court held that school officials did not violate a student’s free speech and due process rights when he was disciplined for making a lewd and vulgar speech at a school assembly

Morse vs Frederick

the US Supreme Court held that school officials did not violate a student’s First Amendment freedom of speech rights after suspending him for displaying, at a school event, a banner that was seen as promoting illegal drug use (i.e. bong hits for Jesus)

post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy

Latin for “after this, therefore because of this,” is an informal fallacy that states because an event occurred first, it must have caused this later event

Supremacy Clause

establishes that the constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority, constitute the “supreme law of the law.” while federal law finds possession of marijuana illegal, NYS allows adults to possess up to 3 ounces.

delegated powers

those powers granted to the federal government by the Constitution (eg power to tax, mint money, etc). also known as expressed or enumerated powers

implied powers

those powers not specifically listed in the Constitution, which the national government requires to carry out its expressed powers. While the Constitution, requires the US government to raise an army and navy, the government created the Air Force to meet evolving needs for the nation’s defense

Necessary and Proper Clause

Article 1 of the constitution enables Congress to make the laws required for the exercise of its various constitutionally established powers. also called the “elastic clause”

inherent powers

those powers that any national government may exercise simply because it is the government (eg border control, defense, immigration, etc)

reserved powers

those powers that belong to that states (eg education, elections, etc)

concurrent powers

those powers that both the national government and states share (eg power to tax, build roads and establish courts)

Due Process Clause

the Constitution requires federal and state government to take constitutionally established steps before “depriving people of their life, liberty, and property”

Civil Liberties

are constitutionally protected individual freedoms and personal rights that protect citizens (eg freedom of speech, press, assembly, right to petition, etc)

Equal Protection Clause

a constitutional guarantee under the Fourteenth Amendment (and applied to the federal government via the Fifth Amendment) ensuring that states and federal government cannot deny any person equal treatment under the law

protected class

a group of people with a common characteristic who are legally protected from employment discrimination based on that characteristic (eg race, religion, national origin, age, sex, family status, disability, veteran status, and genetic information)

Establishment Clause

the section of the 1st Amendment forbidding the government from establishing an official religion but also prohibits government actions that unduly favor one religion over another

quorum

the minimum number of legislatures required to conduct business. a call of the roll of members is done to determine if the minimum number of members are present

bill

a law proposed in the US House of Representatives or US Senate

first reading

the presentation of a bill in either the House or Senate

calendar

an official, chronological list of bills, resolutions, and legal cases that are eligible for floor consideration or courtroom hearings, rather than a rigid schedule of events

filibuster

the prolonged discussion of a bill, to delay legislative progress on it

session

the annual meeting of Congress, within a two-year term

census

the systematic decennial (i.e. every 10 years) of gathering and recording information about the US population. information such as number of births, deaths, marriages, etc

reapportionment

the distribution of seats in the US House of Representatives based on a population of each state as determined in the national decennial census

redistricting

process of setting up new district lines after reapportionment has been completed

gerrymandering

the act of a party changing voting districts to help itself and hurts the party who is against them

caucus

a closed meeting of a group of persons belonging to the same political party or faction usually to select candidates or to decide on policy

standing committee

a permanent committee that focuses on one area (ex: armed services committee)

sub committee

a small group, derived from members of a standing committee to research a specific committee and reporting findings to the standing committee

congressional rider

a provision attached to a larger, unrelated bill that law makers use to pass controversial items or secure funding for projects that might otherwise fail, making it difficult to veto because the main legislative package is usually critical or must pass

congressional mark up

a meeting where a committee or subcommittee reviews, debates, and amends a proposed bill line by line. lawmakers vote on changes, and if a majority approves the final text, the committee officially reports the bill to the full chamber for a vote

pigeonholing

the act of a committee chairperson letting a bill die in committee by never scheduling a hearing on it

congressional resolution

a formal legislative measure expressing the opinion, policy, or procedural rules of congress. it expresses the opinion or internal rules of Congress and does not have the force of law, whereas a law creates binding legal rules that apply to the general public

electoral college

the constitutionally established, indirect system used in the US to elect the president and vp, consisting of 538 total electors where a candidate needs 270 to win

commander in chief

the president is the supreme command of the US military forces, though Congress holds the formal power to declare war and deny money for conflicts if believes are not needed or unlawful

executive order

an informal presidential power defined as an official, written directive issued by the president to federal agencies that carries the force of law without requiring congressional approval. the president is also the chief executive of the govt

cabinet

the group of presidential advisers composed of the heads of the 15 executive departments, the VP, and any other officials the president designates, who help executive federal laws and manage the bureaucracy

order of succession

the constitutionally and statutorily defined order of federal officials who take over the presidency if the incumbent dies, resigns, is removed, or becomes incapacitated. the key roles next in line are the VP, the Speaker of the House, and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate, the Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of Defense, etc

declaration of war

is congress’s formal, enumerated power under constitution to legally commit the nation to war, requiring approval from both the House and Senate to act as a legislative check on the president

war powers resolution

requires presidents to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops into hostilities. while intended to restrict unapproved conflicts, it implicitly allows 60 to 90 days of military action without prior consent, which executives often treat as tacit operational leeway

veto

the constitutional power of the president to reject a bill passed by Congress. to execute a regular veto, the president must return the bill with written objects to its originating house within 10 days (excluding Sundays). if the president takes no action within this 10-day window, the bill’s fate depends on Congress’s status: it automatically becomes law if Congress is in session, or it automatically dies as a pocket veto if Congress has adjourned and prevented the bill’s return.

clemency

the broad umbrella term for an act of mercy, grace, or leniency by which a president or governor forgives or lessens the penalties of consequences of crime

Presidential pardon

an official act of forgiveness granted to a single, specific person convicted of a federal crime, thereby restoring lost civil rights (such as voting or holding public office)

amnesty

a collective form of forgiveness applied to a class or group of people rather than an individual, usually given before a trail or conviction. examples: former confederate soldiers or vietnam draft evaders

commutation

a reduction of a legal sentence to lesser penalty (such as cutting prison time), without forgiving the crime itself

25th amendment

sets the rules for presidential succession, filling vice-presidential vacancies, and handling presidential death, resignation, removal, or disability. it ensures a clear and orderly transfer of executive power

designated survivor

a cabinet member who skips a major government gathering including the president, vice president, and members of the cabinet, with one member staying at a secret location, ready to take over the presidency

impeachment

a formal legislative process for charging a high-ranking executive (like a president) with wrongdoing and potentially removing them from office, not removal from office

lame duck

an elected official in the final phase of their term—such as a president or member of Congress—whose power and influence have declined because their department is certain. this often occurs after the incumbent loses an election or cannot run again due to term limits. presidents are constitutionally limited to two terms

civil servant

career federal employee hired based on professional merit rather than political affiliation, providing institutional continuity across adminstrations

whistle blower

a federal employee or contractor who reports agency misconduct, illegal activity, or mismanagement to an Inspector General or Congress

Inspect General (IG)

an independent official within a federal agency tasked with auditing investigating, and combating fraud, waste, and abuse

sunset provision

clause inserted into a law that causes it to automatically expire or terminate on a specific date unless Congress explicitly votes to renew it

parliamentarian

an independent, non-partisan expert in each chamber who advises the presiding officer and lawmakers on the complex rules, precedents, and procedures governing legislative debate

speech or debate clause

a constitutional protection that grants lawmakers legal immunity from being sued or prosecuted for statements made, or actions taken, during official legislative duties

gridlock

stalemate where Congress is unable to pass laws due to intense partisan disagreement or a split in control between the House, Senate, and presidency

partisan

a firm adherence to the positions and ideology of one’s own political party, often leading to unyielding voting patterns along party lines

bipartisan

an agreement or join legislative effort involving cooperation between members of both major political parties

unanimous consent

a time-saving procedure used in the Senate to expedite business by adopting rules or passing measures without a formal vote, which can be blocked by a singe senator’s objection

suspension of the rules

a fast-track procedure used in the House of Representatives to quickly pass non-controversial bills by bypassing the committee stage, limiting debate, and requiring 2/3s majority to pass

christmas tree bill

a piece of legislation that features an unusually high number of riders or amendments, offering special benefits or projects to numerous interests