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What three structures make up the brainstem?
Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
Is the cerebellum part of the brainstem?
No
What does contralateral mean?
Opposite side of the body
Which hemisphere primarily controls the right side of the body?
Left hemisphere
Which hemisphere is usually dominant for language and speech?
Left hemisphere
Which hemisphere is more involved in spatial relationships and pattern recognition?
Right hemisphere
What is a gyrus?
A fold or ridge of the cerebral cortex
What is a sulcus?
A groove between gyri
What does the central sulcus separate?
Frontal and parietal lobes
What is the function of the precentral gyrus?
Primary motor control
What is the function of the postcentral gyrus?
Primary somatosensory processing
What does the lateral sulcus separate?
Temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes
What is Broca's area responsible for?
Speech production
What is Wernicke's area responsible for?
Language comprehension
What happens when Broca's area is damaged?
Slow, effortful, nonfluent speech
What is the basic functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
What is the soma?
Cell body of a neuron
What is the function of dendrites?
Receive incoming signals
What is the function of the axon?
Carries action potentials away from the soma
Where are action potentials typically initiated?
Axon hillock/initial segment
What are axon collaterals?
Branches of an axon
How many axons does a typical neuron have?
One
What are terminal boutons?
Axon endings that release neurotransmitters
What is the synaptic cleft?
Small gap between communicating cells
What is a neurite?
An axon or dendrite
What is a unipolar neuron?
Neuron with one process extending from its soma
What is a bipolar neuron?
Neuron with two processes
What is a multipolar neuron?
Neuron with multiple dendrites and one axon
What is a projection neuron?
Neuron with a long axon connecting distant regions
What is a local neuron?
Neuron communicating within a nearby region
What is a neurotransmitter?
Chemical messenger between neurons
What is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain?
Glutamate
What is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain?
GABA
What inhibitory neurotransmitter is especially important in the spinal cord?
Glycine
What is a GABAergic neuron?
Neuron that releases GABA
What is a glutamatergic neuron?
Neuron that releases glutamate
What is a cholinergic neuron?
Neuron that releases acetylcholine
What is an axodendritic synapse?
Axon connecting to a dendrite
What is an axosomatic synapse?
Axon connecting to a soma
What is an axoaxonic synapse?
Axon connecting to another axon
What is membrane potential?
Difference in electrical charge across a cell membrane
What is the approximate resting membrane?
−65 mV
Is the inside of a resting neuron positive or negative relative to outside?
Negative
Where is sodium (Na⁺) more concentrated?
Outside the cell
Where is potassium (K⁺) more concentrated?
Inside the cell
Where is calcium (Ca²⁺) more concentrated?
Outside the cell
Where is chloride (Cl⁻) more concentrated?
Outside the cell
What does the sodium-potassium pump move?
3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in
What energy source does the sodium-potassium pump use?
ATP
What is depolarization?
Membrane potential becomes more positive
What is hyperpolarization?
Membrane potential becomes more negative
What is an action potential?
Rapid reversal of membrane potential
What is threshold?
Membrane potential required to trigger an action potential
What does all-or-none mean?
An action potential occurs fully or not at all
Which ion enters during the rising phase of an action potential?
Sodium (Na⁺)
Which channels open during rapid depolarization?
Voltage-gated sodium channels
Which ion leaves during repolarization?
Potassium (K⁺)
Which channels open during repolarization?
Voltage-gated potassium channels
What causes the after-hyperpolarization?
Continued potassium leaving the neuron
What is an EPSP?
Excitatory postsynaptic potential
What does an EPSP usually do?
Depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane
What is an IPSP?
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
What does an IPSP do in the lecture's examples?
Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane
What is temporal summation?
Repeated synaptic inputs adding together over time
What is spatial summation?
Inputs from multiple synapses adding together
What is the main function of myelin?
Insulates axons and speeds conduction
What are Nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps between myelin segments
What is saltatory conduction?
Action potentials jumping from node to node
What happens to conduction speed when axon diameter increases?
It increases
Which ion triggers neurotransmitter release?
Calcium (Ca²⁺)
What opens when an action potential reaches the axon terminal?
Voltage-gated calcium channels
What is exocytosis?
Vesicles fusing with the membrane to release contents
What is anterograde axonal transport?
Movement from soma to axon terminal
What protein carries materials in anterograde transport?
Kinesin
What protein carries materials in retrograde transport?
Dynein