Midterm 2 (5,6,7,8,9 / pg104-266 / Sep19-Oct19) 10/24 https://sdsu.instructure.com/courses/133010/modules

evoloutionary psychology

-The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection.

-Evolutionary psychology argues that modern human brains are a product of what helped our hunter-gatherer ancestors survive.

-Easier way to understand : Evolutionary psychology is like understanding why our minds work the way they do by looking back in time. It's the idea that our thoughts and behaviors have evolved over millions of years to help our ancestors survive and reproduce. This helps us explain why we think and act the way we do today, based on what worked best in the past

sex

the two “biological” categories of male and female.

gender

In psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, that we associate with males and female

essentially a social construct

transgender

Someone whose psychological sense of being male or female differs from their biological sex that they were born into

Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (1971)

psychological tool designed to measure an individual's gender-role identity by Sendra Bem

androgynous

refers to the quality or characteristic of being a combination of both masculine and feminine traits

Exp: assertiveness + nuturance

culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change

Norms

Standards for accepted and expected behavior. In society, Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.

personal space

The buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends on our culture and our familiarity with whoever is near us.

gender role

A set of behavior expectations (norms) for a certain gender males and females

empathy

The vicarious experience of another’s feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes

What are the gender differences in traits

Women = relational, warm, nurturing, emotional Men = independent, cold, uncaring, competitive

What are the gender differences in abilities

Men = math and science

Women = verbal and emotions

What are the gender differences in domiance orientation

Men = leaders, ask women out, pay the bill Women = followers, don’t interrupt, polite

What are the gender differences in aggression

Men = hunters, more likely to commit murder Women = gatherers, less likely to commit murder

Evolutionary influences on gender and mating preferences

Biology: Men have trillion of sperm, women have 1 egg every month

Physical dominance: Women used to want physically attractive men (now its more social power), men want youthful women because childbirth was dangerous

Universal tendencies: Attractiveness, Wealth, Youth, Age differences

Gender differences in jealousy

Men more upset about sexual infidelity(cheating)

Women more upset by emotional infidelity(cheating)

When the experiment of cheating is real, both men and women indicate that emotional aspect upset them more

interaction

A relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

Social Norms

Expectations about what Behavior, Thoughts, or Feelings are Appropriate Within a Given Context, Situation, or Society.

conformity

A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined peer pressured

not mimicry (if you would’ve already done it anyway without the presence of others then it is not conformity)

Method: agreement with others’ obviously wrong perceptual judgments

Real life: Doing as others do; fads such as tattoos

acceptance

Conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.

compliance

Conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while not necessarily wanting to

obedience

A type of compliance involving acting in accord with a direct order or command.

Method: Complying with commands to shock another

Real life: Soldiers employees following questionable orders

autokinetic phenomenon

visual perception phenomenon in which a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise dark or featureless environment appears to move

What breeds obedience?

-The victim’s distance both emotionally and physically from you (You’re more incline to obey the command to harm someone if you dont know them and if they’re not in the same room as you) “Distance negates responsibility.”

Aurhority

-Closeness: How far away physically the experimenter is from the person they are trying to tell to harm someone

-Legitimacy: How legitimate the authority figure is (Main scientist or just an assistant)

-Authority: Policeman rather than a civilian / researcher from Harvard rather than a community college

Norm formation

process of developing and establishing social norms, which are shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups. Norm formation can be influenced by various factors, such as group composition, social identity, social influence, and situational context.

Method: Assessing suggestibility regarding seeming movement of light

Real life: Interpreting events differently after hearing from others; appreciating a tasty food that others love

What predicts conformity

Group size: The more people are looking up at the sky, the more passerby will too

Unanimity: If everyone else before someone said an answer, people that answer later will most likely also say that answer even if it’s wrong

Cohesion: group of closest friend will influence decision more than group of acquaitances

Status: Behaviors of those in higher social status are more likely to be imitated

Public response: people conform more when they must respond in front of others rather than writing their answers privately

No prior commitment: If committed to an answer beforehand, unlikely to change answer afterward

normative influence

type of social influence that makes people conform to the expectations and norms of others in order to be liked and accepted by them

come from human desire for social belonging

informational influence

How people change their belief based on new information they receive from others people

Why do people conform?

Because not conforming mean being ostracized and people don’t like being ostracized

Who will conforms?

People who seek to please others and are comfortable following social rules (those high in agreeableness and conscientiousness) are the most likely to conform.

Although conformity and obedience are universal, different cultures socialize people to be more or less socially responsive.

Social roles involve a certain degree of conformity, and conforming to expectations is an important task when stepping into a new social role.

reactance

Notion that people act in a way to protect their freedom, restricting someone’s freedom will result in anticonformity

Studies in 45 cultures, from Australia to Zambia

-reveal that men everywhere feel attracted to women whose physical features, such as youthful faces and forms, suggest fertility. Women everywhere feel attracted to men whose wealth, power, and ambition promise resources for protecting and nurturing offspring

-Monthly fertility also matters. Women's behaviors, scents, and voices provide subtle clues to their ovulation, which men can detect

persuasion

process of changing a person's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through communication and influence

central route to persuasion

Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

peripheral route to persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

Summary of what paths lead to persuasion

someimes persuasion occurs as people focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. Such systematic, or central route, persuasion occurs when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue.

When issues don’t engage systematic thinking, persuasion may occur through a faster, peripheral route as people use heuristics or incidental cues to make snap judgments.

Central route persuasion, being more thoughtful and less superficial, is more durable and more likely to influence behavior.

credibility

Believability. A communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy

sleeper effect

suggests that over time, people may be more influenced by a message, even if they initially discount or reject it due to the perceived lack of credibility of the source as they forget the reason why they disregarded it in the first place

Seven persuasion principle (SSLURAC)

Scarcity: People prize what’s scarce. Highlight genuinely exclusive information or opportunities.

Social proof: People allow the example of others to validate how to think, feel, and act.

Liking: People respond more affirmatively to those they like

Unity: People often say yes to someone they see as one of them.

Reciprocity: People feel obliged to repay in kind what they’ve received.

Authority: People defer to credible experts

Consistency: People tend to honor their public commitments.

the communicator (elements of persuasion)

Credibility: Perceived expertise, speaking style,

attractiveness and liking: Physical attractiveness

credibility (elements of persuasion)

a credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy

perceived expertise (elements of persuasion)

-knowledgeable about the topic to be an 'expert'
-celebrity communicators are more persuasive
-example on TV ads when we see a person talking about a certain drug they are dressed in a white coat and are seen as smart/important so it can be more beleviable.
-also when an speaker talks about things an audience agrees with them more.

Speaking style: (elements of persuasion)

-another way one is credible is when they speak confidently and fluently.
-people who stumble on their words are often seen as less creditable.

attractiveness

having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.

perceived trustworthiness (elements of persuasion)

-people are more willing to listen to someone they trust.
-study found that facebook uses believed articles/ads that were shared by trust worthy people/friends
-this can be an issue because they don't care about where the news actually came from and believe it based on who shared it (how fake news spreads on social media)
-trustworthiness is also higher when audience believes that you're not trying to persuade them

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

asked for help then asked a bigger request again

lowball technique

a tactic for getting people to agree to something-- people who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante.

-For example: offering a product or deal at a very attractive or low price to get the person to commit. Once they agree or show interest, the seller then reveals hidden costs or additional terms, making the overall offer less favorable than originally presented. Despite the changes, people often feel committed and are more likely to stick with the deal.

bait with low price to then reveal other cost

door-in-the-face technique

involves starting with a large or unreasonable request that you expect the other person to reject. After they decline the big request, you follow it up with a more modest or reasonable request, which is the one you actually wanted them to agree to. People are more likely to say yes to the smaller request after initially refusing the larger one, as they feel more inclined to compromise and be helpful

primacy effect

cognitive bias that causes people to remember and prioritize the information they encounter first when exposed to a series of items or information.

recency effect

information thats presented last sometimes has the most influenced

channel of communication

the way the message is delivered-- weather face-to-face, in writing, on film or in some other way

two-step flow of communication

process by which the media influences, often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others.

-These opinion leaders, perceived as experts, include talk show hosts, doctors, teachers, and others who actively absorb information and share it with their social circles.

need for cognition

-the motivation to think and analyze

-an individual's tendency or desire to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities such as thinking, analyzing, and problem-solving

how do we explore peoples thinking?
-by using rhetorical questions;
-by presenting multiple speakers (for example, having each of three speakers give one argument instead of one speaker giving three);
-by making people feel responsible for evaluating or passing along the message;
-by repeating the message; or
-by getting people's undistracted attention.

What makes persuasion effective?

the communicator (who says it), the message (what is said), the channel (how it is said), and the audience (to whom it is said).

Why do we associate message with good or bad feelings

it make the message more convincing. People often make quicker, less reflective judgments while in good moods. Fear-arousing messages can also be effective, especially if the recipients feel vulnerable but can take protective action.

why is primacy and recency effect relevant in persuasion?

When two sides of an issue are presented separately, the primacy effect often makes the first message more persuasive.

If a time gap separates the presentations, the more likely result will be a recency effect in which the second message prevails.

Why do age matter in persuasion

The age of the audience makes a difference; young people’s attitudes are more subject to change. What does the audience think while receiving a message?

attitude inoculation

It exposes you to weak versions of opposing arguments, so when you encounter a stronger opposing argument later, you're less likely to be persuaded because you've already built up resistance and counterarguments in your mind.

Practice on weak argument against your belief so that you can fight back against harder one later lol

This implies, paradoxically, that one way to strengthen existing attitudes is to challenge them, although the challenge must not be so strong as to overwhelm them.

Group

2 or more people who for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us"

-can help us meet different human needs, also to achieve and gain a social identity.

social facilitation

Original meaning: the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present.

Current meaning: the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others

refers to the phenomenon where the presence of others can influence an individual's performance on a task

social arousal

refers to the heightened state of alertness and physiological arousal that individuals may experience when they are in the presence of others or in a social situation.

Evaluation apprehension: what other people think matters

Distraction: too much of an audience harm performance

Mere presence of others: Energizing

evaluation apprehension

concern for how others are evaluating us

example: In one experiment, individuals running on a jogging path sped up as they came upon a woman seated on the grass — if she was facing them rather than sitting with her back turned

- for newer and more difficult tasks, performance can be hindered by being evaluated: Students who were just learning how to swing a golf club performed worse when told that a "golf expert" would critically evaluate their performance and give them a grade

social loafing

refers to the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when they are working in a group compared to when they are working alone. In other words, people may "loaf" or slack off in a group setting because they believe their individual efforts won't be as noticeable or important.

free riders

an individual who benefits from a group's efforts or resources without actively participating or contributing their fair share.

Deindividuation

concept that describes the loss of self-awareness and individual identity within a group or crowd

-Deindividuation often occurs in situations where people feel a reduced sense of personal responsibility or accountability for their actions.

Imagine a large protest or demonstration where hundreds of people have gathered. Within this crowd, some individuals may start behaving in ways they typically wouldn't if they were alone or in a smaller group. They may engage in acts of vandalism, destruction, or violence, actions that go against their individual values and moral principles. This is an example of deindividuation.

-deindividuated behaviors also occur in online games, where some players engage in toxic behaviors such as insulting others. Players of the online game World of Tanks, for example, were more likely to insult other players when their teammates did the same, suggesting that toxicity spreads within groups (Shen et al., 2020).

Anonymity

state of being anonymous or unidentified, where an individual's identity is concealed or not readily apparent

-On several occasions, anonymous internet users have egged on or otherwise encouraged people threatening suicide or self-harm (Cupp, 2018).

self-awareness

self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself

-Self-awareness is the opposite of deindividuation.
-People who are self-conscious, or who are temporarily made so, exhibit greater consistency between their words outside a situation and their deeds in it.

arousal from social situation with lots of people can lead to?

Losing one own sense of individuality in the heat of the moment

Diminished self-awareness and increased responsiveness to the immediate situation, be it negative or positive. Deindividuation is less likely when self-awareness is high

group polarization

group's initial attitude or viewpoint becomes more extreme after group discussion or interaction.

social comparison

evaluating one’s opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others

pluralistic ignorance

occurs when a group of people collectively misunderstands a situation or holds a false belief because they assume that their individual thoughts or feelings are different from the group's perceived consensus

people avoid expressing opinions they believe to be in the minority due to the fear of social isolation

Groupthink

when the desire for harmony and conformity in the group leads to an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.

AI example: Imagine a team of employees working on a project. They are very close-knit and value harmony within the team. The team leader proposes an idea for the project, and although some members have concerns about it, they hesitate to voice their doubts because they don't want to disrupt the positive atmosphere within the group. Instead, they go along with the leader's idea. As a result, the team doesn't thoroughly examine potential issues with the plan, and the project encounters significant problems down the line.

Not pointing out the potential problem with the plan of people in charge because don’t want to ruin the mood of the group. Leading to problem down the line

leadership

process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group

task leadership

leadership that organizes work, set standards and focuses on goals.

social leadership

leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support

Symptomatic of this overriding concern for harmony, labeled groupthink, are

(1) an illusion of invulnerability,

(2) rationalization,

(3) unquestioned belief in the group’s morality,

(4) stereotyped views of the opposition,

(5) pressure to conform,

(6) self-censorship of misgivings,

(7) an illusion of unanimity,

(8) “mindguards” who protect the group from unpleasant information

When can group work be good?

For generating creative ideas, a combination of individual and group contributions works best

When is a minority group most influential?

when it is consistent and persistent in its views, when its actions convey self-confidence, and after it begins to elicit some defections from the majority. Such minority influence can enable creative motivation

How does leader earn the trust of those they lead

Those who consistently press toward their goals and exude a self-confident charisma often engender trust and inspire others to follow

prejudice

a negative or positive attitude (BUT IT'S MOSTLY NEGATIVE) and belief about a person or group based on their perceived characteristics, such as their race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or other distinguishing features. Prejudice involves making judgments about individuals or groups without getting to know them as individuals and relying on stereotypes or preconceived notions instead.

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Explicit Prejudice

refers to consciously held and openly expressed prejudiced attitudes and beliefs. It's when individuals are aware of their biases and are willing to express them openly. For example, someone who openly expresses discriminatory views about people from a particular race or religion is exhibiting explicit prejudice. Explicit prejudice is often easy to recognize because it is overt and can be observed in people's words and actions.

implicit Prejudice

refers to biases that exist at an unconscious or subconscious level. People with implicit prejudice may not be aware of their prejudiced attitudes, and these biases can influence their behavior without them realizing it.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

psychological tool designed to measure implicit (unconscious) biases and attitudes that people may hold towards various social groups, concepts, or issues

gender prejudice

discrimination based on an individual's gender or perceived gender.

social dominance orientation

a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups

authoritarian personality

A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status.

Religion and Racial Prejudice

1. Role of Religion in Supporting Social Inequalities: In many countries, leaders use religion to legitimize and sanctify the existing social order, including social inequalities. The belief that God has ordained the current social structure can serve as a powerful justification for maintaining the status quo.

2.Correlation Between Religion and Prejudice: Studies have shown a correlation between religion and racial prejudice, with findings indicating that white church members tend to express more racial prejudice than nonmembers.

3.Causal Connection Between Religion and Prejudice: The causal relationship between religion and prejudice is complex and not fully understood. Three possibilities are considered: a. No causal connection: Prejudice may not be caused by religion, but rather, other factors like education. b. Prejudice causes religion: Some individuals may use religion to justify their existing prejudices. c. Religion causes prejudice: Religious beliefs may lead people to hold prejudiced views, such as believing that certain groups are to blame for their circumstances.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

realistic group conflict theory

-Theory threat prejudice arises from competition

-This theory suggests that when groups or individuals perceive that they are in competition for the same resources, such as jobs, land, or political power, they are more likely to develop negative attitudes and prejudices toward members of the opposing group.

example: In a city with a limited number of job openings, two distinct groups of job seekers, Group A and Group B, both compete for the same positions. As job opportunities become scarcer, members of Group A may develop negative stereotypes about Group B and vice versa.

social identity

-The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

-individual's self-concept or self-perception in the context of their group memberships

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

outgroup homogeneity effect

psychological phenomenon that describes how people tend to perceive members of an outgroup (a group they don't belong to) as more similar to each other and less diverse, while perceiving members of their ingroup (their own group) as more diverse and individualized. In other words, individuals often see members of their own group as unique and distinct, while they view members of other groups as more alike and less individualistic.

we stereotype people into groups more when….

Based on categorization

Under time pressure

Preoccupied (cognitive load)

Tired

Emotionally aroused

Too young

own-race bias

tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race

group serving bias

involves the tendency for people to attribute positive outcomes and successes to their own group (the in-group) while attributing negative outcomes and failures to other groups (out-groups).

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group