PSY101 Exam #2 Review - Sensation, Perception, and Learning

Vocabulary flashcards covering core concepts from Chapters 3 (Sensation and Perception) and 4 (Learning) for PSY101 Exam #2.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and detect stimulus energies from the environment.

Perception

The process of organizing, selecting, and interpreting sensory information to enable recognition of meaningful objects and events.

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another, such as physical stimulus energy into neural impulses that the brain can interpret.

Absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of physical stimulus energy needed for detection 50 percent of the time.

Difference threshold (just noticeable difference)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time.

Weber's law

The principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount.

Stevens's power law

A law describing the mathematical relationship between the physical magnitude of a stimulus and its perceived intensity.

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next, determining hue in vision and pitch in hearing.

Amplitude

The height of a wave's crest, determining brightness in visual stimuli and loudness in auditory stimuli.

Frequency

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time.

Rods

Retinal photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision.

Cones

Retinal photoreceptors concentrated near the center of the retina that function in daylight or well-lit conditions to detect fine detail and color.

Trichromatic theory

The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors (sensitive to red, green, or blue) that produce the perception of any color when stimulated in combination.

Opponent process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision and explain phenomena such as visual afterimages.

Composite theory

A visual theory integrating both trichromatic and opponent process mechanisms at different stages of visual processing to explain color vision.

Bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as past experience, expectations, beliefs, and culture.

Contextual effect

The influence of environmental factors and situational context on the perception of a stimulus.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by past experience, expectation, belief, and culture.

Figure-and-ground principle

A Gestalt principle describing the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Closure

A Gestalt perceptual principle where the brain fills in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

Subjective contours

The perception of non-existent edges or boundaries in visual shapes where no physical lines exist.

Perceptual constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging in size, shape, or color even as illumination and retinal images change.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes.

Linear perspective

A monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge with increasing distance.

Interposition

A monocular depth cue where an object that partially blocks our view of another object is perceived as closer.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events, studied by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that elicits no response prior to conditioning.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in classical or operant conditioning when a response is established or strengthened.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows a conditioned stimulus, or when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Stimulus generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned taste aversion

A form of classical conditioning in which an organism avoids a specific taste after a single association with illness or nausea.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Law of effect

Edward Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers following a desired response.

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli following a response.

Positive punishment

Decreasing behaviors by administering an unpleasant stimulus following a response.

Negative punishment

Decreasing behaviors by withdrawing a desirable stimulus following a response.

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need.

Secondary reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer.

Continuous schedule of reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every single time it occurs.

Fixed-ratio schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Drive-reduction theory

A theory of motivation stating that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Incentive theory

A theory of motivation proposing that behavior is motivated by external goals, rewards, or stimuli.

Arousal theory

A motivation theory suggesting that people perform actions to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson law

The principle that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, beyond which excessive arousal decreases performance.

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake and internal satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment.

Overjustification effect

The effect of offering extrinsic rewards for an activity that is already intrinsically rewarding, leading to a decrease in intrinsic motivation.

Self-determination theory

A theory of motivation that focuses on internal sources of motivation and innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Observational learning/modeling

Learning by observing others, researched by Albert Bandura in his bobo doll studies.