PSYC U3 Review

What do developmental psychologists focus on?

the physical, cognitive, and social changes that we experience throughout our lifespans

What 3 types of studies might a developmental psychologist do and why?

Cross-sectional: used because it's quick, inexpensive, and efficient for observing age differences at a single point in time

Longitudinal: used to successfully control for cohort effects and accurately track individual changes across an extended period

Cross-sequential: used to combine the benefits of both designs by allowing researchers to evaluate cohort comparisons and longitudinal changes simultaneously

Describe the nature vs nurture debate.

explores how biological and genetic inheritance (nature) interacts with environmental experiences (nurture) to shape human development

What are critical periods?

period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is needed for proper development

What is synaptic pruning?

the brain's natural process of eliminating unused/weak neural connections to make the remaining pathways more efficient

Describe schemas.

concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Define and contrast assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation: interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas

Accommodation: adapting current schemas to incorporate new information

Explain Theory of Mind.

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states; allows for perspective taking

How is object permanence assessed?

hiding a toy to see if they search for it

How is conservation assessed?

changing a container's shape to see if they know the amount stays the same

What is scaffolding?

An instrumental technique where a person interacting with the child assumes more responsibility for guiding the learning. As the child learns,the responsibility is gradually transferred to him.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

the difference between what a child can do without help and what they can do with help

Distinguish between separation and stranger anxiety.

Separation: anxiety over parental separation peaks at around 13 months

Stranger: fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months

Define attachment.

emotional ties with another person

Describe what is meant by an infant's "temperament"?

refers to their characteristic style and intensity of emotional reactivity

What are the 3 broad categories of attachment?

secure, insecure-anxious, insecure-avoidant

Secure attachment

when mother leaves, child becomes upset; when she returns, they seek contact

Insecure-anxious attachment

may cling, cry, remain upset at mother's leaving

Insecure-avoidant attachment

seem not to notice or care about mother's departure and return

Authoritarian parenting

low responsiveness and high demandingness (coercive; children feel they can do no right)

Authoritative parenting

high responsiveness and high demandingness (confrontive; children feel loved and learn fair, logical boundaries)

Neglectful parenting

low responsiveness and low demandingness (uninvolved; children feel ignored)

Permissive parenting

high responsiveness and low demandingness (unrestraining; children feel loved/special but lack boundaries)

What is the personal fable?

the adolescent belief that one's experiences, thoughts, and feelings are uniquely special and unlike anyone else's

Identify the 3 stages of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development.

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Preconventional morality

focused on self-interest, where rules are obeyed to avoid punishment or gain rewards

Conventional morality

focused on social approval and maintaining social order by upholding laws, rules, and expectations

Postconventional morality

focused on self-defined ethical principles, basic human rights, and abstract justice that may transcend specific laws

What are the stages of prenatal development, and when does each occur?

Zygote: conception to 2 weeks (fertilization, cell division, and implantation)

Embryo: 2 weeks to 8 weeks (formation of major organs and basic anatomical structures)

Fetus: 9 weeks to birth (growth, rapid brain development, and refinement of organ systems)

What are teratogens and why are they important to consider in fetal development?

any external agent--such as a harmful chemical, virus, or drug--that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause physical or mental harm

What are some effects of teratogens?

structural birth defects, premature birth, low birth weight, cognitive/behavioral deficits; Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Describe metacognition.

thinking about thinking

Describe Erikson's Theory of Social and Emotional Development.

a framework showing how our social and emotional needs change as we grow through eight stages of life, each centered on a specific "crisis" or challenge

What is the crisis associated with young infants (>12 months)?

Trust vs Mistrust; learning whether the world is a safe place based on how dependably caregivers meet their needs

What is the crisis associated with adolescence (ages 12-18)?

Identity vs Role Confusion; testing different roles to figure out who you are

What is the crisis associated with adults between the ages of 18-40?

Intimacy vs Isolation; working to form close, meaningful romantic relationships and love, or risking loneliness and isolation

What is the crisis associated with older adults (>65 years+)?

Integrity vs Despair; looking back on life to feel a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment, or regret

Define and describe the field of social psychology.

the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

Define external/situational attributions and give an example.

factors outside the person doing the action (peer pressure)

Define internal/dispositional attributions and give an example.

the person's stable, enduring traits, personality, ability, emotions (anxious person being afraid of everything)

Summarize the Fundamental Attribution Error.

when we go too far in assuming that a person's behavior is caused by their personality

Describe the actor-observer bias.

a psychological tendency to explain our own behavior differently than we explain the behavior of others

Describe how the self-serving bias works.

a psychological tendency for people to take personal credit for their successes while blaming outside, situational factors for their failures

What are attitudes?

evaluative beliefs or opinions about people, objects, or ideas

What are the 3 components of an attitude?

affective, behavioral, cognitive

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

when our beliefs or expectations influence the way we act and those actions then result in our belief coming true, thereby reinforcing our expectations

Describe cognitive dissonance and when it is most likely to occur?

the uncomfortable mental tension you feel when your attitudes and actions don't match up

What is persuasive communication?

an attempt to change an attitude or belief by delivering a message that advocates a specific side of an issue

What does the elaboration likelihood model suggest about persuasive communication?

the most effective persuasive technique depends on the motivation of the listener

Foot in the Door

small request followed by a larger request

Door in the Face

large request followed by a smaller request

Low Ball technique

offer an attractive deal, then later change the terms of the original deal

Explain the concept of obedience.

doing what you're told because someone in charge gave you a direct command/order

How is obedience different from compliance?

obedience is following direct orders from an authority figure, whereas compliance is agreeing to requests or suggestions from peers without formal authority

What is conformity?

a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group, in response to real or imagined group pressure

What factors increase conformity?

group size, group importance, no allies

What factors decrease conformity?

allies, ability to answer privately, having a strong commitment to your view

What is the "false consensus effect" and what does it have to do with conformity?

A cognitive bias where people tend to overestimate how much other people agree with them, assuming their own habits or beliefs are shared by the majority. Because people assume others share their views, they may act based on that perceived consensus. When they realize they disagree with a group, the desire to fit in or avoid standing out drives them to conform

What is social facilitation?

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

What is social loafing?

tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when held individually accountable

Describe deindividuation and how it can influence our behavior.

losing your self-awareness and self-restraint when you're in a group, which happens when you feel anonymous and aroused. It makes you more likely to do things you wouldn't normally do

How do social interactions/decision-making amongst groups tend to differ from those when someone is alone?

groups can influence performance, decision-making, and anonymity. For decision-making specifically, groups tend to make more extreme or risky choices compared to individuals alone

Risky Shift

the tendency for decisions made by groups to be RISKIER than decisions made by an individual alone

Group Polarization

the tendency for like-minded group members to become MORE EXTREME in their opinions or positions as a result of discussing things together

Group Think

a phenomenon where group members' beliefs become so uniform that DISSENT BECOMES IMPOSSIBLE because no one wants to be the outcast or disrupt group harmony

Distinguish between prejudice and discrimination.

Prejudice: an unfair and negative ATTITUDE OR BELIEF toward a group and its members

Discrimination: unjustifiable negative BEHAVIORS OR ACTIONS taken toward a group and its members

What are stereotypes?

general beliefs about a group of people and a type of heuristic

Ingroup

the group of people with whom we share a common identity ("us")

Outgroup

those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup ("them")

Implicit bias/stereotypes

unconscious attitudes or a set of unconscious mental representations about a social group that guide our behavior and judgements without us realizing it

Explicit bias/stereotypes

conscious, deliberate beliefs and attitudes that someone is fully aware of having about a group of people

How does implicit bias affect our interactions with others?

leads to unconscious snap judgements and favoritism or prejudice based on social groups, which can unconsciously alter how we perceive things and react to others in split-second situations

What is stereotype threat and how can it influence performance?

happens when you worry about confirming a negative stereotype about your group, and that stress causes you to perform worse

What is confirmation bias?

the tendency to search for, interpret, notice, and recall information that supports what we already believe

Explain the "just world" phenomenon and how it may contribute to prejudice?

the cognitive bias and belief that the world is inherently fair; contributes to prejudice by leading people to assume that those who suffer misfortune must deserve it, thereby justifying discrimination and victim blaming

Scapegoating Theory

prejudice is caused, in part, by a tendency to blame someone else or an outgroup for negative circumstances, frustrations, or economic struggles

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

How does altruism differ from prosocial behavior?

prosocial behavior is any action intended to help others and GAIN A REWARD

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Chameleon Effect

Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements