polisci exam 2- democracies and autocracies

the first lecture asks how countries become democratic, while the second asks how democracies break down, even when they still hold elections.

What is democratization?

The process through which a political system becomes more democratic.

What are the three waves of democratization?

First: 1825–1925; second: 1945–1950; third: 1974–2006.

When did the first wave of democratization occur?

1825–1925.

When did the second wave of democratization occur?

1945–1950.

When did the third wave of democratization begin?

1974, beginning with Portugal's Carnation Revolution.

What is a reverse wave of democratization?

A period when countries move away from democracy toward authoritarian rule.

What happened during the first reverse wave?

Democratic progress reversed during 1925–1945.

When did the second reverse wave occur?

1960–1974.

What trend has been discussed since around 2006?

A possible third reverse wave, characterized by autocratization.

What is autocratization?

The process through which a political system becomes less democratic.

What is deterministic causation?

The idea that a cause reliably produces a particular outcome.

What is probabilistic causation?

The idea that a factor changes the likelihood of an outcome without guaranteeing it.

What is a counterfactual?

A hypothetical alternative outcome used to assess what would happen if a factor changed.

What is a risk factor in democratization?

A condition that increases or decreases the likelihood of democratic transition.

What is modernization theory?

Economic development can make democracy more likely by changing society and class relations.

How might economic development encourage democracy?

It changes class interests, resources, and social identities, potentially increasing demands for political participation.

Does economic development guarantee democracy?

No. It may increase the likelihood of democracy but does not guarantee it.

What is civic culture theory?

The idea that democratic stability is supported by particular patterns of civic attitudes and participation.

What are the three elements of civic culture?

Civic engagement, political equality, and solidarity.

What is civic engagement?

Participation and involvement in public and political life.

What does political equality mean in civic culture?

People are treated as political equals and have meaningful opportunities to participate.

What does solidarity mean in civic culture?

A sense of shared belonging and mutual commitment among members of society.

What is endogeneity in civic culture theory?

Uncertainty about whether civic culture produces democracy or democracy produces civic culture.

What is one limitation of civic culture explanations?

Participation may be unequal, causal direction is unclear, and theories may reflect Anglo-American assumptions.

Why does civilian control of the military matter for democracy?

Democratic governments need elected civilian authorities to control the armed forces.

What is military supremacy?

A situation where the military dominates political authority.

What are military reserve domains?

Areas of political authority or policy the military retains despite civilian government.

How can reserve domains weaken democracy?

They limit elected officials' authority and reduce democratic accountability.

How can the international environment affect democratization?

Foreign pressure, support, and geopolitical changes can influence whether democracy develops.

How did the Cold War affect democratization?

Superpower competition shaped international support for or opposition to democratic movements.

Why was the end of the Cold War important?

It changed international incentives and created opportunities for democratic transitions.

How did Vatican II and liberation theology relate to democratization?

They helped shape some religious institutions' engagement with social justice and political change.

How can the European Union encourage democratization?

Membership incentives and political conditions can encourage democratic reforms.

What is an agency-based explanation of democratization?

An explanation emphasizing choices and actions by political leaders, elites, and ordinary citizens.

What role can a political crisis play in democratization?

A crisis can weaken an existing regime and create opportunities for political change.

What is an elite split?

A division among ruling elites that can weaken authoritarian rule.

What is a pact in a democratic transition?

An agreement among political actors about rules or terms for a transition.

How can mass mobilization encourage democratization?

Collective public action can pressure leaders and undermine authoritarian authority.

What is a surprise election outcome's potential effect?

It can expose regime weakness and create opportunities for opposition or institutional change.

What is top-down democratization?

Democratic change initiated or negotiated by leaders and elites.

What is bottom-up democratization?

Democratic change driven by citizens, social movements, and mass mobilization.

What are the four broad regime categories in the democracy-autocracy framework?

Closed autocracy, electoral autocracy, electoral democracy, and liberal democracy.

What is a closed autocracy?

A regime without meaningful multiparty electoral competition.

What is an electoral autocracy?

A regime with multiparty elections that are not sufficiently free and fair.

What is an electoral democracy?

A regime with meaningful, free, and fair elections but weaker liberal protections.

What is a liberal democracy?

A democracy with free and fair elections plus strong civil liberties, rule of law, and institutional checks.

How does electoral democracy differ from liberal democracy?

Liberal democracy provides stronger rights protections, rule of law, and checks on government power.

How can a democracy become less democratic without ending elections?

Leaders can weaken civil liberties, checks and balances, and opposition conditions while retaining elections.

What is an open-ended coup?

A coup in which the military or other actors seize power without a clear, credible commitment to restore democracy.

What is an executive coup?

A leader uses executive power to dismantle or override democratic institutions.

What is electoral fraud as a form of democratic breakdown?

Manipulating vote counting or election procedures to distort or overturn electoral outcomes.

What is a promissory coup?

A coup justified as saving democracy, with promises to restore elections and civilian rule.

What is an executive takeover?

An elected leader gradually weakens institutions and opposition to consolidate power.

How does manipulation of the electoral environment undermine democracy?

It unfairly advantages incumbents by restricting opposition, media, or electoral competition.

What is the difference between older and newer forms of democratic breakdown?

Older forms often involve overt coups or fraud; newer forms often involve gradual institutional erosion.

How can populism contribute to autocratization?

Leaders may claim exclusive representation of the people and portray opponents or constraints as illegitimate.

How can polarization contribute to democratic backsliding?

Intense division can reduce trust, weaken democratic norms, and make abuses easier to justify.

What is losers' consent?

Accepting legitimate election losses and allowing winners to govern under democratic rules.

What is winners' restraint?

Winning leaders refrain from abusing power or undermining legitimate political opponents.

Why are losers' consent and winners' restraint important together?

They support peaceful transfers of power and prevent winners from abusing authority.

How can mass mobilization help reverse democratic backsliding?

Organized citizens can pressure leaders to restore democratic norms and institutions.

How can the judiciary help reverse democratic backsliding?

Courts can enforce constitutional limits and protect rights when sufficiently independent.

Why is a unified opposition important against autocratization?

Coordination reduces vote splitting and strengthens resistance to incumbent abuses.

How can civil society help defend democracy?

Independent organizations can mobilize citizens, monitor abuses, and defend democratic norms.

Why can elections or critical events reverse backsliding?

They can create openings for opposition victories, accountability, or renewed public mobilization.

How can international support help reverse democratic backsliding?

External pressure, incentives, and assistance can support democratic institutions and opposition groups.