bio exam

glycolysis location

cytosol

glycolysis inputs

glucose, 2adp+pi, nad+

glycolysis outputs

2 pyruvate, 2atp, nadh

krebs location

mitochondrial matrix

krebs inputs

2 pyruvate, 2adp+pi, nad+, fad+

krebs outputs

co2, fadh2, nadh, 2atp

electron transport chain location

mitochondrial cristae

etc inputs

26 or 28 adp+pi, nadh, fadh2, o2

etc outputs

26 or 28 atp, nad+, fad+, h2o

cellular respiration atp yield

30 or 32

lactic acid fermentation inputs

glucose, 2adp+pi, nad+

lactic acid fermentation outputs

2 lactic acid, 2atp, nad+

alcoholic fermentation inputs

glucose, 2adp+pi, nad+

alcoholic fermentation outputs

ethanol, 2atp, nad+, co2

biofuel production

1. biomass broken down and exposed to enzymes to convert it to glucose

2. glucose used as input for anaerobic fermentation

3. ethanol distilled and purified

biofuel ethics

• costly to produce

• can increase fuel costs if mandated

• clearing land to grow crops can cause deforestation

ldr inputs

h2o, adp+pi, nadp+

ldr outputs

o2, atp, nadph

ldr location

thylakoids/grana

lir inputs

co2, atp, nadph

lir outputs

glucose, adp+pi, nadp+, h2o

lir location

stroma

co2 conversion location in plants

• c3: bundle sheath

• c4/cam: mesophyll cells

recombinant plasmid production

• gene and plasmid cut with same endonuclease = complementary sticky ends

• 2 pieces of dna anneal and sealed with dna ligase

bacterial transformation process

• bacteria made competent to take up plasmid with heat shock

• only some bacteria will take up plasmid - and only some will be recombinant

identification of successful bacterial transformation

• grown on agar plate with antibiotic

• cannot grow = not taken up plasmid

insulin production

1. insulin a and b extracted from human dna using 2 endonucleases

2. remove introns

3. make recombinant plasmids

4. transform bacteria

5. bacteria expresses the proteins in insulin a or b fusion polypeptide

6. fusion proteins extracted and purified and

7. insulin a and b removed from b-gal protein and join to produce insulin

recombinant plasmids for insulin production

• 2 recombinant plasmids make with 2 antibiotic resistance genes

• plasmids removed from bacterial cell and cut with same endonuclease which cut insulin

• insulin a inserted - dna ligase seals

• lac z inserted in front of insulin a in plasmid (no stop codon) - dna ligase seals

inserting b-gal gene to promote gene expression

• insulin a and b are short polypeptides which would be degraded by bacterial enzymes

• rna polymerase can transcribe b-gal and insulin together to make longer fusion protein = won’t be degraded

inserting b-gal gene to detect successful gene insertion

• can’t grow = not taken up plasmids

• blue bacterial colonies = intact lac z gene

• white bacterial colonies = disrupted lac z gene - successfully transformed

mammals

• homeothermic

• vertebrates

• milk producing mammary glands

• one lower jawbone with specialised teeth

primates

• 3d colour vision

• binocular forward facing eyes

• large brain volume

• prehensile hands/feet

• opposable digits

• nails not claws

hominoids

• no tail

• longer arms than legs

• shorter spine

• distinctive molars

hominins

• bipedal

• complex social groups and communication

• largest brain volume to weight

monoclonal antibodies production

1. scientists inject mice with antigen on desired target cell that is causing disease they want to treat

2. stimulates immune response

3. scientists extract b cell from spleen

4. b cell fused with myeloma cells = hybridomas

5. appropriate antibody selected and cloned

6. antibodies collected and purified

monoclonal antibodies for cancer

• boost immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells

  • bind = more visible to nk+phagocytes

  • bind + interact with complement proteins = mac

• cancer cells can be extracted and specific mabs made against antigens

monoclonal antibodies for autoimmune disease

• reduces attack on self cells

• bind to cytokines so immune cells remain inactivated

• bind to and inhibit overreactive b and t cells

• inhibit ige involved in severe allergy asthma