H1. The Science of Psychology

Psychology

The scientific study of behaviour and the mind

Behaviour

Actions and responses that we can directly observe

Mind

Internal states and processes (such as thoughts and feelings) that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses

Fake news

Stories that are either very clear fabrications or, more dangerously perhaps, just close enough to something that is believable to make them credible – with the additional problem of ease and speed of circulation via social networks

Social construct

A collection of characteristics and traits that are so often presented in society that their origins are lost in time and never questioned

Basic research

Research that reflects the quest for knowledge purely for its own sake (for example: the Robbers Cave study)

Applied research

Research designed to solve specific, practical problems (for example: the jigsaw program)

5 central goals of psychology (as a discipline):

1. Describe how people and other species behave

2. Understand the causes of these behaviours

3. Predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions

4. Influence behaviour through the control of its causes

5. Apply psychological knowledge in ways that enhance human welfare.

Levels of analysis framework

Behaviour and its causes can be examined at the biological level, the psychological level, and the environmental level

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Excessive disproportionate anxiety about several different aspects of life

Mind–body interactions

The relations between mental processes in the brain and the functioning of other bodily systems

The mind-body problem

Is the mind a spiritual entity separate from the body, or is it a part of the body’s activities?

Mind-body dualism

The belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body (example philosopher: René Descartes)

Monism

The belief that mind and body are one and that the mind is not a separate spiritual entity (example philosopher: Thomas Hobbes)

Empiricism

School which holds that all ideas and knowledge are gained empirically – that is, through the senses (example philosopher: John Locke)

Structuralism

The analysis of the mind in terms of its basic elements (example philosophers: Wilhem Wundt, Edward Titchener)

Functionalism

Held that psychology should study the functions of consciousness rather than its structure (example philosopher: William James)

Psychodynamic perspective

Searches for the causes of behaviour within the inner workings of our personality (our unique pattern of traits, emotions and motives), emphasizing the role of unconscious processes (example philosophers: Pierre Janet, Jean-Marc Chacot)

Phobias

Intense unrealistic fears

Psychoanalysis

The analysis of internal and primarily unconscious psychological forces (developed by Freud)

Defence mechanisms

Psychological techniques that help us cope with anxiety and the pain of traumatic experiences (example of defence mechanism: repression, which protects us by keeping unacceptable impulses, feelings and memories in the unconscious depths of the mind)

Object relations theories

Theories that focus on how early experiences with caregivers shape the views that people form of themselves and others

Behavioural perspective

Focuses on the role of the external environment in governing our actions (example philosopher: Pavlov)

Tabula rasa

Empiricist idea holding that at birth the human mind is a ‘blank tablet’ or ‘slate’ upon which experiences are written → in this view, human nature is shaped purely by the environment

Thorndike’s law of effect

Responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to recur, and those followed by unsatisfying consequences become less likely to recur

Behaviourism

School of thought that emphasizes environmental control of behaviour through learning (example philospher: John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner) → behaviourists sought to discover the laws that govern learning

Cognitive behaviourism

Proposes that learning experiences and the environment influence our expectations and other thoughts, and in turn our thoughts influence how we behave

Humanistic perspective (humanism)

Emphasized free will, personal growth and the attempt to find meaning in one’s existence (example philosophers: Abraham Maslow, Mahatma Gandhi, Carl Rogers)

Self-actualization

The reaching of one’s individual potential (each of us has an inborn force towards this)

Positive psychology movement

Emphasizes the study of human strengths, fulfilment and optimal living → In contrast to psychology’s long-standing focus on ‘what’s wrong with our world’ (e.g., mental disorders, conflict, prejudice), positive psychology examines how we can nurture what is best within ourselves and society to create a happy and fulfilling life (happiness, satisfaction, good humour, etc.)

Cognitive perspective

Examines the nature of the mind and how cognitive/mental processes influence behaviour → In this view, humans are information processors whose actions are governed by thought (example philosopher: Hermann Ebbinghaus, Jean Piaget, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky)

Gestalt psychology

Examines how elements of experience are organized into wholes → argued that our perceptions are organized so that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’ (example: Consider the painting in Figure 1.11. Many people initially perceive it as a whole – as a portrait of a strange-looking person – rather than as a mosaic of vegetables)

Cognitive psychology

Focuses on the study of mental processes and embodies the cognitive perspective → study the processes by which people reason and make decisions, devise solutions to problems, form perceptions and mental images, and produce and understand language (example psychologists: Allan Baddeley, Sir Richard Gregory)

Cognitive neuroscience

Uses sophisticated electrical recording and brain-imaging techniques to examine brain activity while people engage in cognitive tasks

Social constructivism

Maintains that what we consider ‘reality’ is largely our own mental creation, from a shared way of thinking among members of social groups → most concepts are social constructions

Sociocultural perspective

Examines how the social environment and cultural learning influence our behaviour, thoughts and feelings

Culture

The enduring values, beliefs, behaviours and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next

Norms

Rules (often unwritten) that specify what behaviour is acceptable and expected for members of a group

Socialization

The process by which culture is transmitted to new members and internalized by them

Behaviour genetics

The study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors

Cross-cultural psychology

Explores how culture is transmitted to its members, and examines psychological similarities and differences among people from diverse cultures

Individualistic (culture)

An emphasis on personal goals and self-identity based primarily on one’s own attributes and achievements

Collectivist (culture)

Individual goals are subordinated to those of the group, and personal identity is defined largely by the ties that bind one to the extended family and other social groups

Biological perspective

Examines how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behaviour

Behavioural neuroscience

Examines brain processes and other physiological functions that underlie our behaviour, sensory experiences, emotions and thoughts

Natural selection

If an inherited trait gives certain members an advantage over others, these members will be more likely to survive and pass these characteristics on to their offspring

Neurotransmitters

Chemical released by nerve cells that allow them to communicate with one another

Evolutionary Psychology

A growing discipline that seeks to explain how evolution shaped modern human behaviour → stress that, through natural selection, human mental abilities and behavioural tendencies evolved along with a changing body

Interaction

The way in which one factor influences behaviour depends on the presence of another factor (For example, someone who experiences a minor setback in life may become depressed if she or he has a strong biological predisposition for depression. The same setback might barely faze a person with a weak biological predisposition for depression; only a catastrophic loss might cause this other person to become depressed. Thus the intensity of life stress and strength of biological predisposition would interact to influence behaviour. Just as boiling water softens celery and hardens an egg, the same environment can affect two people differently.)