AP U.S. Government & Politics Unit 2 & 3 Study Guide

Vocabulary flashcards covering core terms, concepts, legal clauses, and landmark Supreme Court cases for AP U.S. Government & Politics Units 2 and 3.

Establishment Clause

A First Amendment clause providing that the government may not establish or sponsor religion.

Free Exercise Clause

A First Amendment clause establishing that the government generally may not prohibit the free exercise of religion.

Symbolic Speech

Actions or symbols used to communicate a political message.

Prior Restraint

Government action that prevents publication before it occurs, which places a heavy burden of justification on the government.

Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions

Content-neutral rules that regulate when, where, or how expression occurs.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

Supreme Court case that applied the Second Amendment right recognized in Heller to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause.

Fourth Amendment

Constitutional amendment that protects people against unreasonable searches and seizures.

Valid Warrant

A search authorization that generally must be supported by probable cause and particularly describe the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.

Selective Incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied specific protections in the Bill of Rights to state governments through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause over time, case by case.

Fifth Amendment

Constitutional amendment providing grand jury protection in federal cases, protection against double jeopardy, protection against compelled self-incrimination, due process, and just compensation for takings.

Sixth Amendment

Constitutional amendment guaranteeing a speedy and public trial, impartial jury, notice of charges, confrontation of witnesses, compulsory process, and assistance of counsel.

Due Process

The principle that government must follow fair legal procedures and respect applicable constitutional protections before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property.

Double Jeopardy

Protection against being tried or punished again for the same offense by the same sovereign after the relevant jeopardy has attached.

Miranda Warnings

Warnings required before custodial interrogation that advise a person of the right to remain silent, that statements may be used against them, and the right to an attorney, including appointed counsel if eligible.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Supreme Court case that historically recognized a constitutional privacy protection related to abortion under the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause.

Equal Protection Clause

A Fourteenth Amendment clause requiring states to provide equal protection of the laws, central to constitutional challenges involving racial discrimination and classifications.

Due Process Clause (Fourteenth Amendment)

A Fourteenth Amendment clause establishing that states may not deprive people of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, serving as the route through which many Bill of Rights protections were incorporated.

Affirmative Action

Policies intended to address inequality or expand opportunity for historically disadvantaged groups, evaluated under constitutional limits and strict scrutiny when government uses racial classifications.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972

Federal legislation that prohibits sex discrimination in education programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)

Supreme Court case holding that racial segregation in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause because separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.

Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard/UNC (2023)

Supreme Court decision holding that the college admissions programs before the Court violated the Equal Protection Clause, changing the legal framework established after Grutter.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

A foundational text by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. explaining why nonviolent direct action was necessary when negotiation and other efforts failed to address racial injustice.

Separation of Powers

The constitutional principle dividing national government authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

Constitutional mechanisms that allow each branch of government to limit or influence the actions of the other branches.

Federalism

The division of power between different levels of government (national and state).

Conference Committee

A congressional committee that works to reconcile different versions of a bill passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Discretionary Spending

Federal spending that is determined and authorized through the annual congressional appropriations process.

Mandatory Spending

Federal spending required by existing law, often through entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid.

Government Shutdown

An event that may occur when appropriations or a continuing funding agreement are not enacted due to budget disagreements.

Delegate Model

A model of representation in which a representative follows constituents' stated preferences.

Trustee Model

A model of representation in which a representative uses personal judgment about the public interest, even when it differs from constituent opinion.

Politico Model

A model of representation in which a representative shifts between delegate and trustee approaches depending on the issue or circumstances.

Partisan Behavior

Actions or votes in Congress strongly shaped by party affiliation and party goals.

Super PACs

Independent expenditure-only committees that may raise and spend unlimited amounts to advocate for or against candidates, but may not coordinate spending with candidates or campaigns.

Iron Triangles

Stable, mutually beneficial relationships among congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that influence public policy.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to review government actions and determine whether they are consistent with the Constitution.

Stare Decisis

The legal doctrine of following precedent in court decisions.

Judicial Independence

The insulation of federal judges from political pressure, protected through life tenure during good behavior and constitutional safeguards against salary reduction.

Bureaucracy

The departments, agencies, and commissions that implement and administer public policy.

Implementation

The process by which bureaucratic agencies translate laws into programs, regulations, and enforcement practices.

Rulemaking

The process by which bureaucratic agencies develop regulations under authority delegated by Congress and existing law.

Administrative Discretion

The authority of bureaucratic agencies to make choices about how to carry out laws and enforce regulations within their legal mandate.

Congressional Oversight

Efforts by Congress to influence bureaucratic implementation by holding hearings, requesting testimony, conducting investigations, revising statutes, and using budgetary authority.