CRIM103Glossary

acquisition

In observational learning, the process of paying attention to and memorizing an observed behaviour

active constraint

The relatively large conscious and deliberate effort needed to act in a socially acceptable manner in situations where acting violently is perceived to be an effective and desirable course of action

actuarial method

The risk assessment method that prescribes all aspects of the process, including information gathering, risk factor identification and operationalization, and the rules for combining this information and making the judgment about risk

acute-battering stage

The second stage in Lenore Walker's cycle of abuse theory; characterized by the abusive partner subjecting the victim to various forms of physical, psychological, or sexual abuse

addiction model of serial homicide

A theory of serial murder that states the act of murder has a ritualistic aspect for serial killers that leads them to become addicted to or compelled to kill

adjusted-actuarial approach

The risk assessment method that involves generating an initial judgment of risk using the actuarial method and then subjecting it to the evaluator's professional discretion

adolescence-limited-(AL) pathway

The pathway consists of individuals who engage in less serious or normative patterns of criminal behaviour during the teen years and desist from offending upon entering adulthood

advantageous comparisons

A moral disengagement mechanism whereby people construe their immoral behaviour as less offensive by judging it against another's more egregious acts

affective symptoms

Indicators of a person's emotional re-sponses and feelings

age-crime curve

The distribution of criminal behaviour over the lifespan, which consistently shows that crime rates rise sharply throughout adolescence, peak in early adulthood, and taper off during middle and old age

age-graded theory of informal social control

A develop-mental theory of criminal behaviour, developed by Robert Sampson and John Laub, which argues that individuals desist from crime when they are subject to informal so-cial controls These controls are age-graded such that the value or effect increases or decreases at different points of the lifespan

allele

An alternative form of a gene that exists in more than one form

alogia

Speech that is impoverished in terms of the quantity of spoken words or the content of the ideas communicated

amygdala

An almond-shaped subcortical structure that is part of the limbic system, which processes emotion formation in the environment, and plays a role in somatic or emotional memory

anamnestic method

The risk assessment method that involves inquiring into an offender's history to identify the sequence of personal and situational factors that the evaluator believes led to past offending

anhedonia

A loss of enjoyment from social and recreational activities that are usually a source of pleasure

antisocial lifestyle factors

A category of risk factors for sexual aggression and recidivism that includes general patterns of antisocial behaviour and lifestyle problems such as impulsivity, employment problems, and a criminal history

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)

A personality disorder generally characterized by a consistent disregard for and violation of the rights of others Symptoms may include a failure to conform to social norms or the criminal law, irritability, aggressiveness, consistent irresponsibility, and impulsivity

appraisal-disruption model

The theory that alcohol interferes with the cognitive abilities people need to appraise social cues in the environment properly; as a consequence of alcohol intoxication, they may behave inappropriately for the situation

asymmetrical relationship between ASPD and psychop-athy

The empirical finding that many people diagnosed with ASPD are not considered psychopathic but most peo-ple assessed by the PCL-R as psychopathic are also diag-nosed with ASPD

attachment theory

The idea that early relationships and bonds formed with primary caretakers in infancy significantly influence our capacity to form meaningful relationships with others as adults

attention allocation model (AAM)

The theory that alcohol interferes with the cognitive capacity needed to pay attention to multiple sources of information and, as a consequence of intoxication, people's attention focuses on only the most salient social cues in a situation, which are often aggressive in nature

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

An exter-nalizing behaviour disorder characterized by two broad categories of symptoms

attribution of blame

A moral disengagement mechanism whereby the victims are blamed for provoking the per-petrators and leaving them with no alternative but to re-spond as they did

attrition

In terms of a treatment program, the number of intended participants who do not complete the program

authoritarian parenting

A rigid and restrictive approach to parenting characterized by punitive disciplinary methods and non-consultative limit-setting

authoritative parenting

"firm but fair" approach to par-enting characterized by warmth, support, and consulta-tive limit-setting

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The part of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for regulating auto-matic or involuntary functions, including the fight-or-flight response

aversive events

Incidents that produce pain, frustration, and unpleasant feelings

aversive instigators

Cues in the environment that produce specific negative emotional responses that may trigger in-timate partner violence

avoidance learning

A process whereby individuals learn to initiate or inhibit certain behaviours in response to aver-sive stimuli

avolition

A lack of energy and/or disinterest in one's usual activities

battered woman syndrome

The term for the collection of psychological responses commonly experienced by female victims of persistent and serious IPV, including de-pression, low-self-esteem, and powerlessness

behavioural activation system (BAS)

A biological sys-tem that triggers emotional responses in the amygdala and activates behaviours in response to rewards and non-punishment

behavioural genetics

The field of study concerned with un-derstanding the influence of genetics on the expression of characteristics and behaviours within a population

behavioural inhibition system (BIS)

A biological system that triggers emotional responses in the amygdala and activates behaviours in response to aversive stimuli, such as punishmentbehavioural symptoms Indicators of a person's observable and characteristic manner of behaving

belief maintenance

The effort by a delusional person to corroborate or discredit his or her delusions

binge

To consume a large amount of something, such as a drug, in a continuous fashion for an extended time

biphasic

Something that has two phases

bipolar disorder

A mental disorder characterized by episodes of mania alone or varying episodes of mania and depression

borderline personality disorder

A persistent pattern of unstable interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects and discernible impulsivity that begins by early adult-hood and exists in several contexts Symptoms include chronic feelings of emptiness, affective instability, iden-tity disturbance, and frantic efforts to avoid real or imag-ined abandonment

brain plasticity

The brain's ability to change structure and function and to develop new neural connections

brief psychotic disorder

A mental disorder like schizophre-nia and schizophreniform disorder, except that the symp-toms are present for only a very short time

cardinal traits

Dominant personality traits that are externally characteristic of an individual

case study

An in-depth examination or observation of a single individual

catharsis

A Greek word meaning "to cleanse" or "to purge" and referring to the release of blocked anger, frustration, or aggression in mild, non-destructive ways

causal inference

A logical conclusion made when experimental results show that one variable is responsible for changing another

central traits

General characteristics that form the basic foundation of personality but are not necessarily dominant aspects of an individual's dispositional style

challenge hypothesis

A theory that attempts to account for observed relationships between testosterone levels and aggression The hypothesis proposes that males' testosterone levels will rise in situations that challenge reproductive success or mating

cheating behaviour

Accepting a benefit from another without reciprocating the favour

chromosome

A microscopic structure that contains DNAclassical conditioning A learning process whereby two stimuli are repeatedly paired and result in a neutral (conditioned) stimulus being able to evoke the response originally evoked by the other (unconditioned) stimulus

coercion theory

The idea that early-onset criminal and violent behaviour develops out of a family environment characterized by coercive and ineffective parent-child interactions

coercive interactions

A pattern of dynamic parent-child interactions wherein the aversive behaviours of one individual elicit an equally aversive response from others, resulting in an escalation of dysfunctional behaviours toward one another

coercive persuasion

Forms of social influence that produce significant changes in an individual's behaviour and thought processes

cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)

An approach to psychological treatment that focuses on individuals recognizing and changing errors in their thinking as well as developing cognitive skills as a way to avoid problem behaviours

cognitive dissonance theory

A social psychological theory that proposes the experience of inconsistent thoughts (ie dissonant cognitions) results in anxiety that people may reduce by changing their attitudes to minimize the inconsistency

cognitive-interference theories

Theories based on the common premise that alcohol intoxication impairs human social cognition in ways that increase the chance of aggressive and violent behaviourcognitive psychology The study of the mental processes involved in human perception, decision-making,thought, memory

cognitive restructuring

A form of cognitive-behavioural therapy that focuses on changing behaviour by altering a person's thought content It typically involves challenging the person's distorted beliefs and working to replace un-desirable thoughts with more appropriate ones

cognitive skills development

A form of cognitive-behavioural therapy that focuses on changing behaviour by altering how a person processes information and decides how to act It typically involves the use of modelling and role-playing exercises to develop the person's ability to analyze, consider, and respond effectively to different situations

command hallucination

A false auditory perception of being ordered to do something

co-morbid

A mental disorder or condition that presents with another mental disorder or condition

concordance rate

The percentage of two individuals, usually twins, who match one another with respect to the presence of a particular characteristic or condition

conditionability

The degree to which classical conditioning responses can be easily and strongly formed in a person

conditioned response (CR)

A response in classical conditioning that was originally evoked by the unconditioned stimulus but, as a result of repeated pairings between the unconditioned and the conditioned stimuli, is evoked by the conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A stimulus in classical conditioning that was originally neutral but, as a result of repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers the response evoked by the unconditioned stimulus

conduct disorder (CD)

A childhood externalizing disorder characterized by aggression toward people and/or animals, deliberate property destruction, deceitfulness or theft, and serious rule violations This disorder is often viewed as a precursor to antisocial personality disorder

conflict theory of crime

The theory that crime is determined by the powerful and wealthy members of society, who define it in ways that promote and maintain their position of dominance

confluence model of sexual aggression

An integrated theoretical model of sexual violence that proposes the risk for sexually violent behaviour is influenced by two distinct pathways of factors, hostile masculinity and an impersonal sexual orientation These pathways may work independently or collectively

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

A disorder of the adrenal gland that can result in a failure to produce sufficient levels of certain hormones, such as cortisol, and excessive production of androgens

consensus theory of crime

The theory that crime is defined in a manner that is broadly agreed upon by the members of society

construction sample

The original group of participants studied to develop a new psychological test or assessment tool

continuous reinforcement

Rules specify that reinforcement should be delivered after every appropriate response

contrition stage

The final stage in Lenore Walker's cycle of abuse theory; is characterized by the abusive partner trying to persuade the victim to remain in the relationship by apologizing, promising to change, and, in many cases, lavishing gifts on him or her

control group

The study participants who are not exposed to the variable or condition under investigation and are used for comparison purposes

control-override symptoms

A term used by Bruce Link and colleagues to describe psychotic symptoms that may lead to a diminished sense of control and autonomy over one's body and actions

conventional moral reasoning

The middle of Lawrence Kohlberg's levels of moral development, whereby right and wrong are determined by the expectations of other significant people, such as family members, close friends, or society at large

corporal punishment

A form of discipline that employs physical force to correct or control a child's behaviour The force is intended to cause the child pain, not injury

crash

The period following a binge on stimulant drugs, when the intoxication effects rapidly diminish and the user experiences feelings of depression, lethargy, and/or hunger

craving

An intense longing or urge for something, such as a drug

criminal behaviour

An act or omission that is legally defined as a crime

criminalization of mental disorder

The processing of individuals with mental disorder through the criminal justice system for committing nuisance or disruptive behaviours instead of treating these individuals as patients in the mental health system

criminal thinking

Cognitive processes and content that facilitate the initiation and continuation of offending behaviour

cumulative disadvantage

An early difficulty that creates subsequent developmental problems for individuals over the life course

cycle of abuse theory

The theory of intimate partner violence, proposed by Lenore Walker, that abusive relationships exhibit a predictable cycle of behaviour characterized by the following three stages

defence mechanisms

Unconscious processes employed by the ego to protect the psyche against unacceptable levels of anxietydefinitions In Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory, the values, attitudes, norms, and beliefs held by people

dehumanization

A moral disengagement mechanism that loosens the perpetrators' connection to their victims by viewing them as devoid of human qualities or as objects deserving mistreatment

deindividuation

A psychological state characterized by a loss of individual identity, self-awareness, and self-evaluation, which is often associated with being immersed in large groups

deinstitutionalization

A policy implemented in many Western jurisdictions that involves transferring psychiatric patients out of large-scale institutions and into community-based care

delirium tremens (DTs)

A pattern of severe symptoms caused by withdrawal from alcohol and characterized by tremors, delusions, hallucinations, and convulsions

delusional disorder

A mental disorder marked by the pres-ence of one or more persistent, non-bizarre delusions, without any other accompanying psychotic symptoms

delusional distress

A sense of fear, anxiety, or sadness experienced as a result of delusions

delusions

A strongly held but false belief

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A long, coiled, threadlike strand consisting of small segments known as genes, which constitute the blueprints of life

depressants

A class of drugs that dampen certain aspects of central nervous system function

destructive cult

A strictly organized group that has a char-ismatic leader, uses deceptive means to recruit members, and retains them through manipulative strategies that negate freedom of choice

deviance-disavowal theory

The theory that, when people are intoxicated, the usual social standards of behaviour are temporarily suspended so that they are viewed as less responsible for their actions

deviant sexual interests

Persistent attractions to illegal or highly unusual sexual acts

deviant sexual preference hypothesis

A theory of sexual violence that posits that men who engage in sexually deviant and violent behaviour are motivated by a recurrent and intense pattern of deviant sexual preferences

diathesis

A genetic vulnerability or predisposition to develop a psychopathological condition

differential association

A theory, proposed by Edwin Sutherland, that the behaviour people learn and exhibit vary as a function of their social interactions and relationships