Biological Psychology: Brain, Behavior, and Neural Structure Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering biological psychology, neural communication, neurotransmitters, nervous system divisions, endocrine signaling, brain imaging tools, functional neuroanatomy, and hemispheric lateralization.

Biological Psychology

The specialty within psychology that studies the connections between genes, neurons, hormones, and behavior, encompassing subfields like behavioral neuroscience and neuropsychology.

Localization of Function

The principle that specific brain regions are primarily responsible for particular functions, although complex mental activities rely on interconnected networks.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to continuously adapt, reorganize, and rewire its neural connections throughout life in response to environmental context and experience.

Neuron Anatomy

The physical structure of a specialized nerve cell, including dendrites to receive input, a cell body, an axon to conduct signals, a myelin sheath for insulation, and terminal branches with synapses.

Dendrites

Branching structures of a neuron that act as intake receptors to receive incoming chemical messages from other cells and convey impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

The single long projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty insulating tissue encasing an axon that prevents ion leakage and speeds up the transmission of neural signals.

Synapse

The microscopic gap or junction between the terminal branch of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron.

Glial Cells

Support cells in the nervous system that nourish, insulate, protect, and maintain neurons.

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse generated by ion movement across the cell membrane that travels down the axon when a neuron reaches its threshold.

Threshold

The minimum energy level required to open voltage-gated ion channels and trigger a neural impulse.

All-or-None Principle

The rule stating that a neuron fires completely when threshold is met or does not fire at all, where stronger stimuli result in more frequent firing rather than a stronger electrical signal.

Hyperpolarization

A refractory state following depolarization where the cell membrane becomes temporarily more negatively charged than its resting potential, preventing the signal from moving backward.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft that bind to specific lock-and-key receptor sites on receiving neurons to exert excitatory or inhibitory effects.

Reuptake

The process by which the sending presynaptic neuron reabsorbs excess released neurotransmitters for recycling.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter enabling muscle action and learning; its attenuation is linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter regulating movement and reward; an oversupply is associated with schizophrenia, while an undersupply causes immobility and Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood and sleep; an undersupply is linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that controls alertness and arousal; an undersupply is linked to depression.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; an undersupply is associated with seizures.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory; an oversupply can overstimulate the brain and trigger migraines.

Endorphins

Endogenous neurotransmitters responsible for pain relief and pleasure; prolonged opiate drug use suppresses their natural production.

Agonist

A molecule or substance that binds to a neurotransmitter receptor to mimic, promote, or amplify neural transmission.

Antagonist

A molecule or substance that binds to a neurotransmitter receptor to block or inhibit normal neural action.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary decision and control center of the body, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming sensory information inward from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing command signals outward from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the central nervous system that internally communicate and mediate processing between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Autonomic Nervous System

The structural division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary, automatic bodily functions and internal organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that acts as the body's gas pedal during fight-or-flight responses, expanding pupils, accelerating heart rate, and converting glycogen to glucose.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that acts as the body's brake during rest-and-digest states, slowing heart rate, stimulating digestion, and conserving energy.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that monitors the external environment and provides voluntary control over skeletal muscles.

Homeostasis

A steady internal state of balance or equilibrium maintained by autonomic feedback systems.

Reflex

An automatic, immediate involuntary response to a stimulus mediated by a spinal cord neural circuit before cognitive processing occurs in the brain.

Endocrine System

The body's slow chemical communication system, consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to produce long-lasting effects.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system located directly beneath the hypothalamus, responsible for secreting growth and regulatory hormones that govern other glands.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure lying below the thalamus that regulates homeostasis (hunger, thirst, body temperature, sex) and controls the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Lesion

An invasive brain research method involving the surgical destruction or ablation of a specific brain region to analyze resulting functional deficits.

Optogenetics

A precise neuroscience technique using light-activated ion channels to selectively turn targeted neurons on or off using fiber optic light.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A non-invasive technique recording brain electrical wave activity via electrodes placed on the scalp, offering high temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution.

Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

A brain imaging technique measuring magnetic fields generated by neural electrical activity, providing both high spatial and high temporal resolution.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A functional imaging method tracking metabolic activity by detecting the consumption of injected radioactive glucose in active brain regions.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

An imaging technique that tracks blood flow and oxygen consumption over time to produce high-resolution functional and structural 3D maps of brain activity.

Thalamus

The egg-shaped sensory relay hub resting atop the brainstem that directs incoming sensory messages to appropriate cortical areas.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network extending through the brainstem essential for regulating sleep, wakefulness, attention, and general arousal.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' structure located at the rear of the brainstem responsible for timing, procedural memory, balance, and motor coordination.

Limbic System

A neural region located below the cerebral hemispheres—including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus—that serves as the hub for emotions, drives, and memory.

Amygdala

Two small almond-shaped neural clusters in the limbic system linked to fear, aggression, survival responses, and emotional memory.

Hippocampus

A limbic system structure crucial for processing and consolidating explicit, conscious memories for long-term storage.

Cerebral Cortex

The folded outer layer of neural tissue covering the cerebral hemispheres, accounting for $85\%$ of brain weight and housing approximately $20\text{ to }23\text{ billion}$ neurons.

Frontal Lobes

Cortical regions behind the forehead involved in speaking, voluntary muscle movement, planning, judgment, and abstract reasoning.

Parietal Lobes

Cortical regions at the top rear of the head responsible for processing body touch, temperature, and spatial reasoning.

Occipital Lobes

Cortical regions at the back of the head containing the primary visual processing centers.

Temporal Lobes

Cortical regions located above the ears responsible for auditory processing, language comprehension, and face recognition.

Motor Cortex

A strip of tissue at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary bodily movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

A strip of tissue at the front of the parietal lobes that receives and processes bodily touch and movement sensations.

Cortical Homunculus

A mapped representation of the motor and somatosensory cortices mapped by Wilder Penfield, illustrating that the brain allocates larger cortical areas to body parts requiring fine control or having higher sensitivity.

Prefrontal Cortex

The anterior portion of the frontal lobes responsible for executive functions, impulse control, social behavior, and judgment.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of axon fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling neural communication between them.

Split-Brain

A condition resulting from surgical transection of the corpus callosum, causing the two cerebral hemispheres to operate with semi-independent streams of consciousness.

Contralateral Processing

The structural organization wherein each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from and controls motor output for the opposite side of the body.