Biological Development and Brain Neuroscience

This set covers biological development stages from prenatal to adolescence, motor development patterns, neuroscience structures, and theories including Gesell's Milestones and Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems.

Biological development

The progressive changes in size, shape, and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic potentials (genotype) are translated into functioning mature systems (phenotype).

Germinal Stage

The first stage of prenatal development occurring from fertilization to the 2nd week, beginning at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite.

Zygote

A fertilized egg formed by the union of a sperm and egg cell.

Mitosis

The process of cell division through which the zygote first divides into two cells, then four, eight, sixteen, and so on.

Blastocyst

A mass of cells developed from the zygote consisting of three layers: the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

Ectoderm

The layer of a blastocyst that will eventually become the skin and nervous system.

Endoderm

The layer of a blastocyst that will become the digestive and respiratory systems.

Mesoderm

The layer of a blastocyst that will become the muscle and skeletal systems.

Implantation

The process where the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches itself to the uterine wall, nestling into the uterine lining.

Embryonic Stage

The second stage of prenatal development from the third week to the 8th week, during which the mass of cells becomes distinct as human.

Neural tube

A tube formed approximately four weeks after conception that later develops into the central nervous system, including the spinal cord and brain.

Fetal Stage

The third and longest stage of prenatal development, lasting from the ninth week until birth, marked by cell differentiation and significant growth.

Synapses

The connections between neurons that begin to develop during the fetal period.

Cephalocaudal

A general pattern of physical and motoric development that follows a head-to-toe progression.

Proximodistal

The progression of motor development radiating from the center of an organism to the periphery.

Gross Motor Development

Growth of large muscles that enable big movements like jumping and running.

Fine Motor Development

Growth of small muscles that enable small movements such as scribbling or using a spoon.

Physiognomic perceiving

Reacting to the global properties of things rather than specific attributes, such as an infant reacting to any cylinder as a feeding bottle.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, allowing neurons to compensate for injury or adjust to new situations.

Axonal sprouting

A mechanism of brain reorganization where undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect neurons whose links were injured.

Sleep Terrors

Frightening dreamlike experiences occurring during the deepest stage of REM sleep shortly after a child has gone to sleep.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleep walking, a sleep disorder where children may move objects or talk while asleep.

Enuresis

Failure to control the urinary bladder once the normal age for control has been reached.

Encopresis

The lack of control over the bowels, which is more common among boys.

Growth spurt

A period in middle childhood or puberty in which physical growth advances at a dramatically rapid rate.

Reaction time

The measure of how quickly an organism can respond to a particular stimulus.

Anorexia Nervosa

A life-threatening eating disorder, mostly among females, characterized by an extreme fear of being heavy and eating less than enough for the body.

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating followed by purging, such as induced vomiting or excessive exercise.

Forebrain

The center for processing sensory information which distinguishes humans from other animals; it is divided into the diencephalon and telencephalon.

Midbrain

A structure that acts as a bridge to transmit signals between the hindbrain and forebrain, mostly from the senses of touch and hearing.

Hindbrain

The control center for visceral functions like heart rate and breathing, comprised of the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum.

Cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of neural tissues in the cerebrum divided into the right and left hemispheres by the medial longitudinal fissure.

Pruning

The process by which neural connections are reduced so that brain circuits become more efficient.

Toxic stress

Chronic, unrelenting stress in early childhood that can damage developing brain architecture and lead to lifelong problems.

Heredity

The transmission of physical characteristics from parents to children through genes, influencing appearance and intelligence.

Equilibrium

A period in Arnold Gesell's theory characterized by smooth, calm behavior and the practice of mastered skills.

Disequilibrium

A period in Arnold Gesell's theory characterized by unsettled, uneven behavior while learning new skills.

Microsystem

The smallest and most immediate environment in which children live, including home, school, and peer groups.

Mesosystem

In ecological systems theory, the interaction or linkages between different microsystems, such as home and school.

Exosystem

Linkages between two or more settings where one may not contain the developing child but still affects them indirectly, such as a parent's workplace.

Macrosystem

The largest and most distant system influencing a child, composed of cultural patterns, values, and political systems.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time in ecological systems theory, including changes in family structure or immense societal changes over time.

Recoding

A process of moving information to long-term memory by asking learners to convey what they learned in their own words via speaking or writing.

Cortisol

A hormone released during stress that can severely harm thinking and brain performance.