KINESIOL 4UU3 TEST 2

End State Comfort Effect

• Theory trying to maximize the end state and jhow comfortable we will feel  

• Observation by rosenbaum observed at a restaurant, bartender always starts in thumb down position and (uncomfortable) and then flip it (comfortable) 

• Study peg flipping task start in a more uncomfortable position to end in a comfortable position  

Upside down uncomfortable position to grab cup and then flip it to fill with water – more common  

• Instead of: pick a cup upt forward and filling it up awkwardly upside down  

precrastination

• the tendency to rush goal completion even at the expense of extra physical effort/higher cost/or lower quality work, just to get it done & off your mind

• Just so we can get it done an off our mind even if we did a worse job 

  • Ex: groceries all in reusable bags: heavy bags need to carry into house – would rather pput all the bags in your arms and do it as one task (precrasination) going to suffer through to get it all done at once  

  Precrasination: wokring on studying for a test and getting an email and choosing to answer that immediately – getting that goal done sooner  

   

  Standing on a packed bus to get home sooner than waiting for the next bus where you will be able to sit  

   

  Doing the dishes before you eat  

   

  Arriving very early to an appointment because you are worried about the parking situation  

Why do we precrastinate?

• freeing up cognitive load and mental resources

• this feeling of a havy cognitive load on limited mental resources can be reduced by complteing task’s early

• increases satisfaction short term

what are cognitive ergonomics?

• cognitive ergonomics: are concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning and motor response as they affect interactions amoung humans and our environment

• BUT we have a limited capacity to: percieve, focus, divide attention, learn, memorize, make decisions, solve problems, communicate

Design considerations for dynamic workspaces - factory workers

• common example of poor layout and design illogical flow throughout the plant (leads to excess motion/walking)

• Picture a factory scenario: like a mailroom 

  • The worker has to go through each of these different processes  

Design considerations for a grocery store

You only need to buy milk, cereal and toothpaste why did it take you longer than 5 minutes? 

• Get distracted along the way and picked up other things  

• Get to the fridge and there are different options and sizes and prices to pick from  

• Different sales distract you  

• Free samples  

• Have to find all your products in all different aisles  

• traffic flow

• aisle width

• signage

what is traffic flow

• grid layout with aisles intersecting at right angles, encourages exploration

what is aisle width

wide main aisles accomodate carts and browsing, narrow secondary aisles create a bustling market feel

what is signage

• clear signage helps customers find what they need and avoid frustration

what is decompression zone

• right inside the entrance of the space where user transitions from outside (weather, sunshine), now coming into the environment and store want to keep it warm and inviting small acclimation period where they are orienting themselves 

free flow

good for a fashion store, want people to look around and see everything, flow through the store  

the term urgency - in grocery stores

• high demand items like milk and brad are placed at the back of the store, encourgaing customers to walk through the whole store

the term impulse purchases in grocery stores

• eye-level shelves have the higher-margin products and impulses buys and bul items and staples are usually lower down

cross merchandising

• grouping complimentry products like pasta sauce and pasta pronote add-on purchases

sensory appeal

• vibrant product sections and fresh bakery aromas create a pleasant shopping experience

cart and basket availability

• promotes larger purchases

checkout efficency

• self-checkout and multiple lanes minimize waiting times

Accessibility

• wide aisles, lowered shelves cater to diverse meeds

design considerations for dynamic spaces - psychological factors

• Decision Fatigue: strategic product placement can influence purchase decisions, especially when shoppers are tired or overwhelmed

• scent marketing: pleasant aromas (fresh baked bread) can subconsciously influence mood and spending

• music and lighting: upbeat music and bright lighting can create a positive and energetic atmosphere

what is another dynamic that involves design consideration to apply cognitive ergonomics?

• student center

• movie theater

desire paths

• often corporations will wait for ‘goat trails’ to be created by users before they create permanent paths

• can tell us about how to design safer better public spaces

macro environments

• whole system, company vision, company philosphy, fow of traffic, overall group experiences

Mezzo enviornments

• relationships with others, working with others on devices

micro environments

• individuals direct contact with tools, handles, worskspace envelope

importance of decision making

• human factors look at the interaction between humans and systems

• every system relies on human decisions

• the quality of those decisions influences:

  • safety - preventing errors, accidents

  • efficiency - using time and resources effectively

  • perfromance - achieveing desired outcome

  • user experience - reducing frsutration and improving satisfaction

decision making

• decision making = choosing between alternative courses of action availiable and either enjoying or suffering the consquences of the chosen actions

Theories of decision making

• normative: a standard for the type of thinking that is optimal for achieving the goal (i.e how things should or ought to be)

• descriptive: theories of how poeple typically think and make decisions (ex: adding psychology and meotions into decision making)

normative

• a standard for the type of thinking that is optimal for acheiving the goal (i.e how things should ought to be)

descriptive

• theories of how poeple typically think and make decisions (ex: adding psychology and meotions into decision making)

A normative decision can have 4 components

1) a set of actions

2) one or more events that describe the uncontrolled future

3) the outcomes and consquences of each action given each event

4) the chances favouring each event

Example: leaving for school, should you bring an umbrella

1) A set of actions

• carry an umbrella

• not carry an umbrella

2) one or more events that describe the uncontrolled future

• rain

• no rain

3) the outcomes and consquences of each action given each event

4) the chances favouring each event

The notion of Utility

• in normative decision theory: there are statements about how people ought to make decisions (such as the umbrella decision)

• most of these theories start with a measure called utility

Utiliy

• a numerical measure of the relative worth of all the physical outcomes associated with decision

The notion of utility - wheel of fortune

• now let us take the outcome where you carry an umbrella and it rains “3”

• would you prefer that outcome for certain or the ‘standard gamble’

• If it stops on dark side least desirable outcome and if it stops on light side least desirable outcome  

• the notion of utility wheel of fortune: by repeating this procedure where the final outcome is indifference. where any decrease made will always cause you to select standard gamble or any increase will cause you to always pick a certain outcome

• - now we can have a measure of the utility of each outcome in this decision

• similar techniques are used in percieved loudness or percieved tonal frequencies

lottery decision in utility measurement

• standard gamble

  • 1 - nothing happens

  • 4 - get wet, drip over test

• certain choice

  • 3 - get slightly damp, lug around umbrella, perhaps lose it

the notion of utility wheel of fortune: by repeating this procedure where the final outcome is ___________. where any decrease made will always cause you to select __________________ or any increase will cause you to always pick a _____________________

• indifference

• standard gamble

• certain outcome

expected value is calculated by

• taking the expected gain or loss for each outcome (heads or tails). x the probability of the particular outcome, then adding up gains and losses

• for our coin example, gain = $2 x probaility of heads (0.5) = $1

• must be added to the other outcome, tails -$0.50 × (0.5) = - $0.25

• put these together $1 - $0.25 = $0.75

• mathematically expressed as

  • EV = O1 x P1 + O2 x P2 + …….

rational decision maker

play any game with an expected positive return regardless of the sums involved

people who focus on ______________ will not play any game even if it can be expected profitable

• subjective utility

Bayes’ Theorem

• what is the probability that you will recieve A’s in all your courses this semester?

  • at the beginning of the semester you were able tog ues but may have felt unsure

  • as the term progresses and you get grades back your estimates should improve

  • this process of revising probability estimates as new data are recieved is the subject of Bayes Theorem

how do we calculate conditional probability

• we need the intersection of outcomes A and B

conditional probability

• the intersection is those events common to both sets. in this case there are two events in the intersection of A and B

define personal space

• refers to the psychological bubble that each of us carries about to aid in regualting social interaction with other people

proxemics

• the scientific study of how people (and animals) use the physical space around them

• founded by Edward hall (1966) an anthropologist who was interested in the cultural differences associated with personal space

• psychologists soon relaized the proxemics had important implications for the design of spaces used by people

personal vs territory

• territory has visible markers or boundaries

  • Territories do not move

• personal space is portable

  • personal space boundaries will vary with changes in the psychological environment

  • personal space is measured by invading it

the worse the invasion the ______ the fight from it

• faster

What is a scenario where your physical presence may impact someone else's movement decisions?  

• Slow walkers  

• Really loud people  

• Smell of someone  

• In sport setting (man-on-man and group marking)  

• Seeing someone with accessibility needs maybe more for them  

• Washroom stalls  

• Entering an elevator  

• Sitting on a bus  

inhibition of return (IOR)

• a theoretical concept wihtin the realm of personal space

  • IOR: the slowing of a response to a target that appeared at the same location as a previusly presented target

  • slowing occurs when attention is disengaged

    • disengaging takes time

    • disengaging and reengaging takes more time

    • one perspective: evolutionary survival mechanism

Picking apples from tree not going to go back to that same tree going to go to a new tree next time because we already picked all the apples from that tree so it is going ot take us longer to go back to that spot 

 

Same when looking for something missing not going o return right back to the space you just looked at  

IOR example: the influence of a smartphone

• Nomophobia: anxiety or discomft caused by being out of contact with a smartphone

• examined whether taking away smartphones for university students in an enviornment without distractions would induce anxiety

  • Physiological levels of anxiety (BP) increased in resp;onse to iphone separation in high/moderate users

  • HR and BP returned back to baseline with their iphone in possession

  • separation anxiety / fear of mising out FOMO

IOR example with phone test

Pre-test

• phone on table, email about following study

task

• light flashes, push button

  • (reaction time)

• joe 2 turns

• fred 2 turns

• 30 trials

  • switch places

• complete survey about being high/moderate/low user

• results: When you have to return back to the same target next to your phone reaction time is slower  

  Then compared to different target on the opposite side of the phone is faster reaction time  

  • Because if you have to return back to same target next to phone since we just detached from I just pushed the button takes more time to re-engage back to it  

  • Same aspect with your phone  

• consistent with the IOR literature

  • general IOR effect present

  • IOR latencies increase substantially when returning to location that shares space with your phone

  • provides some support for an attentional disengagement explanation for IOR effects

• negative ffects of attentional capture by our phones

social conformity experiment with triangles (in class)

• Got a bunch of people to say the wrong answer and no one who did not' get the car stood up against it  

Video - elevator experiment

• Social interaction he impacts of others on your motor behavior 

• All face the other side in the elevator (towards the rear) and the guy not in on it little by little turns to face the same way as them  

• In all videos the subjects turned around 

• In another then all took of their hands and then the subject did (and same with putting the hat back on their heads as well)  

Why confirm 

• Don't want the attention on you  

• Everyone in your personal space facing you maybe turn around to be matching  

• Not wanting to make a stir or look differently   

• Maybe the elevator opens on the other side  

 

Bystander effect video

• Everyone is in on it expect one person  

• The more people in a group less likely someone is to help  

• Diffusion of responsibility end result nobody does anything  

• Are they going to help with the product demonstration he is struggling to put up the tent  

• First group of ten nobody helped  

  • Around 8 mins before helping 

• Now group of five nobody helped  

  • 7 mins before helping  

• Now one person  

  • Average of 3 mins  

Sensory Feedback

• we gain information about many aspects of our mvoements through our sensory system

• this is particularly relevant in human factors when we experience an “error”

• In any situation where we are interacting with something e are getting so muhc sensory feedback and information  

  • Auditory, sensory, etc 

   

  Can also be a lack of tactile, visual information that may be telling us we made na error  

tactile discrimination

• our tactile senses ar eimportant aspect of our sensorimotor feedback, allowing us to detect, differentiate and respond to stimuli that touch our skin

two point discimination test (in class activity)

participant

• eyes closed

• when poked repsond with a verbal “1 point” if you feel only 1 paperclip end or repsonse “2 points” if you feel 2 paperclip ends

• location A: index fignerpad

• location B: palm of the hand

• location c: the shin

two-point discrimination

• is the ability to discern that two nearby objects touching the skin are two distinct points, not one

• reflects how finely innervated an area of skin is

• used for assessing tactile perception

• differed body areas differ in tactile receptor density and somatosensory cortical representation

tactile discrimination - avergae thresholds

• fingertop: 2-8 mm

• palm: 8-12 mm

• shin: 30-40 mm

when is tactile discrimination used

• when designing spaces with controls/tools/buttons, important to consider our tactile discrimination

• is the information and feedback that we are conveying strong/salient enough to minimize errors?

• adding tactile information can help improve efficencies can help improve efficencies

two features are important in perceptual behaviour

1. the ways the eyes move over the present information and then begin the process of reception

2. how the observer integrates and organizes the information. this is the process of perception

it is possible to hear speech and sounds quite ___________ especially without a response needed

• passively

Perception

• it is possible to hear speech and sounds quite passively especially without a response needed

• reading words and pictures is a very active process

perception - eye movements

• visual scanning during reading is cahracterized by a succession of fast movements and stationary periods

• the fast jerks - saccades

• stationary points - fixations

• (even during fixation periods, the eye maes relatively small tremors)

saccades

• fast jerks

• average: around 2 degrees of visual angle (or about 8, 12-point character spaces)

• range: saccade length can range from 2-18 chracter positions (or more)

fixations

• stationary points

• ex: any pause or hold over the word

• average: for skilled readers, the average fixation duration around 200-250ms (individual variation)

• range from 100-500+ ms

perception: eye movements - reading

left to right

• the eye’s movements also include a third characteristic ‘regressions’

• a regression is a movement in the opposite direction to the typical saccadic scan

• occurs around 10-20% of the time in skilled readers

perceptual organization and visual searching

• the ways our eyes move over printed material, then, influence the extent to which the material will be recieved

• it has been argued by Ryaner (1977) that eye movements are controlled by the observers cognitive processes occuring at the time

• this process monitoring hypothesis, then, suggests some form of complex interplay between our perception and understanding of what is being read and eye mvoement control during reading

Perception - eye reading: where might this same ocgnitive pattern appear in kinesiology

• reading a heart monitor or EEG trace and missing a small anomaly

• misreading warning labels or instructional cues under stress

• “seeing” a muscle activation pattern in EMG data that fits an expected result rather than the actual signal

have you ever been reading, your eyes ar emoving over the words, you may even turn the page, before you realize gourmand has been wandering and you cna’t recall any of your book?

• when fatigued, working memory capacity decreases

• sustained attentio becomes harder

• the brain seeks less effortful activities

perceptual organization

• one theory to explain how we organize our perceptual world is from the 1920s from german gestalt shcool of psychology

• the gestaltist’s predictions regarding perceptual organization provide some suggestions as to how textual (and other) information shuold be arranged for easy perception

• theory: individual stimuli are grouped together during perception into whole or gestalts

7 gestalt principles

• promiximty

• similarity

• continuity

• closure

• symmetry and order

• figure-ground

• common fate

proximity

• close objects are percieved as a group

• menu all these dishes together percieve as being APPs

similarity

• similar objects are percieved as a group

• sporting even: one team is red and one is blue

continuity

• elements on a line or curve are related

• a row of chairs form a line

figure-ground

• we percieve objects in the foreground or back

• Baskin Robbins logo has 31 falvours in it

• ex: FEDEX and arrow

common fate

• objects moving together are percieved as a groups

closure

• we complete moving parts

• tree blocking corner of stop but still know it is a full stop sign

symmetry and order

• symmetrical and orderly elements are percieved as a group

• ex: McDonalds arches don’t see it as two arches but as an M

summary perceptual organization

• gestalt psychology suggests that human don’t focus on separate components but instead tend to percieve objects as elements of more ocmplex systems

• how we percieve objects, shapes and forms as whole entities rather than separate parts

Temperature in class activity

Temperature physiological effects

cold temperatures can impair fine motor performance by

• slowing nerve conduction

• decreased muscle function

• impairing sensory feedback

• vasoconstriction and numbness

temperature physiological effects - manual dexterity

• mixed reviews

• finger performance is limited at 13c

• no influence at 16C

• significatnly reduced at 10-13C

• 20C affects hand function

Dexterity impairment can begin above freezing 

• Mixed reviews on where we draw these lines with how moderately cold temperature affects  

 

Main takeaway don’t need it to be below 0 degrees to see effects happening  

temperature cognitive effects

some evidence is also available to suggest that cold temperatures interfere with an individual’s ability to estimate time accurately

• Baddeley (1966) had 20 amateur scuba divers count up to 60 at what they considered to be a 1-second rate

• results: after the divers had entered the 4C water, their estimation of time increased

• suggests that cold is likely to affect the efficency of indivduals carrying out complex tasks (at least with time estimation)

• due to the distraction caused by the stressing effect of the cold

Skin temperature vs core temperature

• the body’s core temperature must be kept within quite narrow limits

• typical core temperature = 37.1 ± 0.3C

• core temperature increase (or reduction) of 5C = lead to death

• smalld epartures from our core temp homeostasis can lead to reductions in both motor and cognitive performance

• even very small changes in the thermal environment can affect an indivdual’s comfort - this room = hot/cold

light can have an impact on out:

_______________, _________________ and ______________

• sleep quality

• cognitive performance

• physical performance

Sunlight or darkness can regulate our circadian rhythm  

 

Physical performance mixed results  

• Some see benefits in well light athletic spaces 

• But the orange theory have strobing no lights for there  

• So mixed reviews on what lighting can do for atmosphere or energy  

a proposed traffic light solution for the colour blind population

• indiivudals with colour blind defiencies vs individuals without

• presented with new traffic light compared to traditional and verbally respond “stop”, “go” “slow” as quickly and as accurately as possible

• preliminary results showed indivudals with colour vision defiencies (CVD) reacted faster and fewer errors to the new syste

• no differences in individuals without CVD

Add in illuminated lines, so they can see the order of the lights, so they can orient what light it is  

temperature and lighting in human factors - summary

• cold impairs motor skills, slower nerve signals, reduced muscle function, cognitvie skills such as time estimation and focus

• lighting influences sleep, alertness

• universal design: consider when coloured lights are used, how canw e redesign these systems for all